GITY SCHOOL 
SUPERVISION 

EDWARD C ELLIOTT 




i-^i=s>TA -, i r ! t.r-J'^ 1 i^^?* i ; - - 



SCHOOL EFFICIENCY SERIES 

PAUL H.H ANUS 




Class _Xiii£l^ 

Book -E C> 

Copyright }^° 



COPTOIGHT DEPOSIT. 



tsMiX 



iv'. 



i 



THE School Efficiency Series comprises about ten 
volumes by as many educational experts on 
Elementary School and Kindergarten, High School, and 
Vocational Instruction, Courses of Study, Organization, 
Management and Supervision. The series consists of 
monographs — with additions plainly indicated in each 
volume — constituting the report of Professor Hanus 
and his associates on the schools of New York City, 
but the controlling ideas are applicable as well in one 
public school system as in another. 
Among the authors contributing to these volumes 
are Professor Paul H. Hanus, Professor of Education, 
Harvard University, who is also general editor of the 
series; Dr. Frank P. Bachman, formerly Assistant 
Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland; Dr. Edward C. 
Elliott, Director of the School of Education, University 
of Wisconsin; Dr. Herman Schneider, Dean of the 
College of Engineering, University of Cincinnati; Mr. 
Frank W. Ballou, Joseph Lee Fellow for Research in 
Education, Harvard University (formerly Assistant 
Professor of Education, University of Cincinnati); 
Dr. Calvin 0. Davis, Assistant Professor of Education, 
University of Michigan; Mr. Frank V. Thompson, 
Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Boston; Dr. 
Henry H. Goddard, Director Department of Psycho- 
logical Research, New Jersey Training School for 
Feeble-Minded Boys and Girls; Mr. Stuart A. Courtis, 
Head of Department of Science and Mathematics, 
Detroit ■ Flome and Day School (Liggett School), 
Detroit; Dr. Frank M. McMurry, Professor of Elemen- 
tary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University; 
Dr. Ernest C. Moore, Professor of Education, Harvard 
University (formerly of Yale University) . 



SCHOOL EFFICIENCY SERIES 



City School Supervision 



SCHOOL EFFICIENCY SERIES 

Edited by Paul H. Hanus 

City School Supervision 

A constructive study applied to 
New York City 

By EDWARD C. ELLIOTT 

Professor of Education and Dirbctor of the Course for the 
Training of Teachers :n the University of Wisconsin 




YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, KEW YORK 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
1914 



Copyright, igi4, by World Book Company. 
All rights reserved. 



SES : ECSS — I 



.E6 



.^AR 20 j 9 14 



©CLA362966 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 

SCHOOL supervision is one of the most important phases 
of the work of city school systems; and one of the 
most difficult. Though firmly and widely established in the 
school systems of the country, it is generally admitted that 
school supervision is far from being as effective as it 
ought to be. This is not due so much to lack of intelligent 
and conscientious supervisory officers as to lack of a clear 
recognition of the complex nature of supervision; and in 
our great cities partly, at least, to faulty organization of 
the system of supervision and to hampering restrictions 
imposed on the supervisory staff by Boards of Education. 
Sometimes all these causes together tend to make super- 
vision mere administrative oversight of the convention- 
ally established routine. As Professor Elliott points out, 
" There is a great difference between merely keeping the 
schools in operation and keeping the schools in operation 
so as to produce tangible results of high value." To secure 
such results is the supreme duty of the supervisory staff. 

This volume contains Professor Elliott's contribution to 
the report submitted by me to the Committee on School 
Inquiry of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment of 
the City of New York — with a few changes, most of 
them unimportant, and all clearly indicated by the author 
(footnote p. i). 

This book, like the other volumes of this series, neces- 
sarily deals with a large number of descriptive details ; but, 
as in the other volumes, these details are organized with a 
view to constructive criticisms based on fundamental prin- 
ciples that underlie satisfactory achievement. In the time 
available Professor Elliott did not attempt to cover fully the 



viii Editor's Preface 

whole field of general supen- ision within the school system ; 
but his inquiry was comprehensive, and includes the func- 
tions of the city superintendent, the associate superintend- 
ents and the board of superintendents, the district superin- 
tendents, and, incidentally, the elementary school principals 
(dealt with in detail by Professor McMurry) ; and the no 
less important functions discharged by the board of exami- 
ners. He was able to give some attention also to the di- 
rectors and assistant directors of special branches. 

Professor Elliott's method, like that of all my associates 
in the New York School Inquiry, was, first, to secure the 
facts required to gain a clear conception of the organization 
and activities of that part of the school system under ex- 
amination ; and then to proceed to the criticisms and recom- 
mendations which the facts demanded. The large number 
of significant facts systematically presented in this volume, 
and the theory of supervision on which the criticisms and 
recommendations are based, lead us to hope that the book 
will provoke further discussion, and hence that it will prove 
useful outside of as well as within the City of New York. 

Two of Professor Elliott's important recommendations 
affect so vitally the future welfare of school administration 
and supervision that I venture to single them out here for 
special mention. They are, first, that a Division or De- 
partment of Investigation and Appraisal be established as 
an integral part of the school control; and, second, that 
steps be taken to establish a Supervisory Council consisting 
of supervisory officers and members of the teaching staff. 
The first of these recommendations is based on the evidence 
presented by the New York school system (and other large 
school systems as well) that it is impossible to secure the 
school facts needed and to utilize them fully for the benefit 
of the school system without a regularly constituted agency 
for collecting and interpreting them — that, in short, such 
an agency is essential to the progressive development of 
sound educational and financial policies and methods, and 
to placing educational procedure progressively on a scien- 



Editor's Preface ix 

tific basis; and the second recommendation recognizes the 
fact that while centraHzation of authority and responsibility- 
is essential in administration, cooperation under leadership 
is the fundamental principle of effective supervision. It is 
a pleasure to note that the first of these recommendations 
has been adopted, in part at least, since the report v^as 
submitted. 

Paul H. Hanus. 

Hakvaed University. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

MY decision to publish in its present form material 
originally designed to meet a specific end is based, 
in part, on the country-wide interest in the School Inquiry 
which gave rise to the report constituting the greater part 
of this volume, and, in part, on the consideration that the 
wider circulation thus secured for the report would afford 
larger opportunity to submit the general principles of con- 
trol advocated and the methods of investigation herein 
described to further criticism and refinement. 

Effective school direction must more and more be organ- 
ized according to principles the validity of which is gen- 
erally recognized by the profession of education. Its opera- 
tion must be constantly checked by methods that provide 
proper tests of the value of educational machinery. Unless 
these come to pass, school control will remain in its pres- 
ent state of uncertain experimentation. Consequently, the 
author's hope is that this volume will promote constructive 
criticism of the principles formulated and a betterment of 
the methods employed. By some such principles of action 
and some such methods of evaluation will the agencies for 
the control of public education in our cities become efficient 
factors for the real democratization of the school. 

It is proper that a record should here be made of the 
valuable assistance rendered to me in collecting the new 
material presented in Chapter X, on the rating of teaching 
efficiency in other American cities, and in arranging the 
several outlines of school organization. In particular, I am 
under obligation to the following school officials: Super- 
intendent F. A. Soper, of Baltimore; Superintendent F. B. 
Dyer, of Boston, and his Secretary, Mr. George S. Burgess ; 



xii Preface 

Superintendent H. P. Emerson, of Buffalo; Assistant Su- 
perintendent C. D. Lowry, of Chicago; Superintendent 
R. J. Congdon, of Cincinnati; Superintendent J. M. H. 
Frederick, of Cleveland, his Secretary, Mr. F. C. Beyer, 
and his Statistical Clerk, Miss Hazel B. Bonfield ; Superin- 
tendent Charles E. Chadsey, of Detroit; Superintendent 

E. O. Holland, of Louisville ; former Superintendent C. G. 
Pearse, and Acting Superintendent A. E. Kagel, of Mil- 
waukee; Superintendent C. M. Jordan, of Minneapolis; 
Superintendent A. B. Poland, of Newark; Superintendent 
J. M. Gwinn, of New Orleans ; Superintendent F. E. Spaul- 
ding, of Newton, Massachusetts; Superintendent M. G. 
Brumbaugh, and Associate Superintendent George Wheeler, 
of Philadelphia ; Assistant Superintendent J. P. O'Hern, of 
Rochester; Superintendent M. C. Potter, of St. Paul; Su- 
perintendent Ben Blewett, his Secretary, Mr. F. L. Urley, 
and Assistant Superintendent W. J. S. Bryan, of St. Louis ; 
Superintendent D. H. Christensen, of Salt Lake City ; Super- 
intendent J. H. Van Sickle, of Springfield, Massachusetts ; 
and Superintendent W. M. Davidson, of Washington. 

I desire especially to acknowledge the great value of the 
assistance rendered throughout the preparation of this 
material for publication by Miss Elizabeth M. McKee, Mr. 

F. L. Clapp, and Mr. H. G. Hotz, of the University of 
Wisconsin. 

Edward C. Elliott. 

UNIVERSITY or WISCONSIN. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Editor's Preface vii 

Author's Preface xi 

Chapter 

I. Introduction i 

II. The Nature of School Control 7 

III. The New York City System of School Control 14 

IV. The School as the Unit for Supervision ... 30 

V. The District Superintendents 5 a 

VI. Directors and Assistant Directors of Speclal 

Branches 64 

VEI. The City Superintendent, the Board of Superin- 
tendents, AND THE ASSOCLATE SUPERINTENDENTS 73 

VIII. The Board of Examiners 93 

IX. Methods and Standards for Determining Teach- 
ing Efficiency 116 

X. The Rating of Teaching Efficiency in other 

Cities 136 

XI. Recommendations for Reorganization .... 168 
APPENDICES 

A. By-Laws Governing the Organization of Elemen- 

tary Schools 185 

B. Salary Schedules: Supervisory Staff of Elemen- 

tary Schools 190 

C. Form for Monthly Report of District Superintend- 

ents 195 



xiv Contents 

Page 

D. Minutes of the Board of Superintendents, Janu- 

ary 19, 1911 196 

E. Minutes of the Board of Superintendents, Octo- 

ber 26, 1911 210 

F. Examination Questions — License No. i 227 

G. Forms for Approval of Service: Renewal of Tem- 

porary Licenses 242 

H. FoRMSFOR Approval OF Service: Advance in Salary 248 
Index 253 



City School Supervision 



CITY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

PRELIMINARY 

WITHIN the following pages a complete discussion of 
the many-sided and intricate subject of the super- 
vision of public schools has not been attempted. The pe- 
culiar and, in many respects, notable circumstances of the 
origin of the book will account for its limited scope. It 
contains but a partial presentation of the more important 
characteristics of the organisation of the system of super- 
vision of a single school system. There is, nevertheless, a 
firm conviction that the analysis of the larger features of 
the problem of public school supervision in the City of New 
York, together with the accompanying arguments concern- 
ing reorganization, is fundamental for the effective devel- 
opment and control of the public school system of other 
American cities.^ 

THE AIM OF SUPERVISION 

The more pressing and distinctive problems of contempo- 
raneous education, especially in the rapidly expanding and 

* My contribution to the original report submitted by the Committee 
on School Inquiry of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment has 
been revised in a few particulars for the present publication. These 
revisions consist for the most part of slight modifications in form and 
phraseology. The several Exhibits presenting in analytical outline the 
administrative and supervisory organization of the public school sys- 
tems of the larger American cities, and Chapter X on the Rating of 
Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities are the principal additions. 



2 City School Supervision 

increasingly complex urban communities of the United 
States, center in the social and political necessity of bringing 
children in mass under the influences of the public school. 
The conscious endeavor is to cause these influences to 
operate directly and immediately, with such uniformity 
and with such discrimination as to produce an outward 
semblance of equality in the distribution of educational 
facilities and opportunities. The situation created by the 
effort to supply equal educational opportunities to masses 
of individuals of widely varying abilities and to social and 
economic classes of widely differing needs has supplied us 
with the underlying social motive for the public schools; 
viz., to resist through the school those ever-present forces 
that tend to submerge the personal child within the imper- 
sonal social organization. 

The democratic motive of American education has been 
a natural product of the mass of the school. The machinery 
of American education is likewise an invention due to the 
necessities of the mass school. It is becoming more and 
more evident that the successful adjustment of this ma- 
chinery to the educational motive is a general social and 
political problem of no small magnitude. Furthermore, 
that the effective and economical control and development 
of education through this machinery is a special social 
and professional problem of far-reaching consequence. 
It may be safely asserted that in no one of our govern- 
mental areas of education — city or state — has there 
been found as yet a way of properly conserving for 
the benefit of the children in school the available profes-- 
sional resources and personal powers of teachers. Yet the 
development of these resources and the larger utilization of 
these powers are the chief aim of school supervision, what- 
ever may be its form of organization. Tiie teaching staff 
constitutes the working capital of the school as a productive 
institution. The extent to which organized school super- 
vision maintains and increases the productiveness of this 
capital through professional stimulation, personal encour- 



Introduction 3 

agement, and technical guidance should be the measure of 
public support of and confidence in such supervision. 

The social ideal of public education is a striving for the 
preservation and for the enlargement of the human iden- 
tity of each child unit. The ideal of supervision of the 
public school should be a striving for the preservation and 
for the enlargement of the professional identity of each 
teaching unit. It is service to children through service to 
teachers. The betterment of the latter makes for the real 
betterment of the former. 

THE SCOPE OF TREATMENT 

This study concerns itself chiefly with the agencies that 
have immediate responsibility for, and direct oversight of, 
the organization and standards of accomplishment of the 
teaching staff; the agencies that determine, ultimately, the 
character of the programs of study (curricula), and hence 
the extent to which the school instruction is adapted to the 
capacities and needs of the children of the city. It will, 
therefore, review more or less critically the activities and 
methods of those individuals whose principal attention is 
assumed to be devoted to directing and elevating standards 
of teaching and to gauging the efficiency of teachers and 
pupils ; that is, principals, directors of special branches, dis- 
trict superintendents, associate superintendents. City Super- 
intendent, and the Board of Superintendents.^ 

The important influence exerted by the Board of Exam- 
iners in the establishment of the initial qualifications of 

^ The circumstances have made quite impossible a comprehensive 
study and treatment of all the important features of the situation. This 
work has endeavored to bring into proper perspective some of the most 
important items that seem to demand critical attention, with special 
reference to the elementary schools. Only the more fundamental as- 
pects of the place of the principal in the supervisory organization are 
included. The details of the supervisory work of elementary school 
principals have been discussed in Professor McMurry's book in this 
series, Elementary School Standards. 



4 City School Supervision 

teachers necessitates a consideration of its methods and 
standards, as these impose responsibiHties that must be 
met by the organized plan of the supervision of schools. 

THE METHOD OF TREATMENT 

The arguments, conclusions, and recommendations pre- 
sented in the following chapters are based on evidence pri- 
marily derived from : 

Documentary material: including the annual reports of 
the City Superintendent of Schools, since 1899, together 
with the accompanying departmental reports; the minutes 
of the meetings of the Board of Superintendents for the 
past four years; the by-laws of the Board of Education; 
records of schools, teachers, and supervisory officers, filed in 
the record office of the City Superintendent of Schools. 

Special information and data: furnished by the members 
of the supervisory and teaching staff in response to requests 
from us. The character of such special information and 
data is described in those sections of the report to which 
they pertain. 

Numerous individual and group conferences with the 
members of the supervisory staff} 

Visitation of schools.^ 

A critical examination of the methods, of work of the 
various hoards^ and individuals constituting the supervis- 
ory staff. 

The principal effort has been to analyze into its leading 
factors the systematic supervision of the public schools of 

* One formal conference of district superintendents was held on the 
afternoon of April g, 1912. Twenty of the twenty-six district super- 
intendents were present. A similar conference of directors of special 
branches was held on the afternoon of April 16, 1912. Eight of the 
nine directors and two assistant directors were present. 

' Twenty-one elementary schools were visited. 

' Including the Board of Superintendents and the Board of 
Examiners. 



Introduction 5 

the city, and to judge these factors according to their own 
demonstrated merits. Contrary to the usual procedure, no 
detailed comparison of the supervisory organization and 
methods followed in New York with those of other large 
cities has been attempted.^ Even with adequate opportunity 
and facilities for such comparison there is grave doubt as 
to the worth of the conclusions to be drawn from such com- 
parative study. A solution of the problem of effective 
supervision of schools in New York requires a treatment 
as distinctive as is the problem. 

From the beginning the Inquiry has aimed at construc- 
tive schemes for the betterment of the organization and 
operation of the supervisory staff, rather than at criticisms 
of existing plans and practises. Nevertheless, constructive 
effort is closely linked to criticism ; the character of the 
former is largely dependent upon the nature of the latter. 

The main current of the recent public criticism of the 
school system has been directed against the defined author- 
ity, the competency, and the spirit of the supervisory staff, 
individually and collectively. A fair investigation of the 
organization and methods of the supervisory direction of 
a school system of the origin, magnitude, and complexity 
of that of New York City requires more than the analysis 
of foiTnally prescribed duties or the criticism of elaborated 
modes of procedure, for the worth of this direction is 
largely conditioned by certain indefinite and intangible per- 
sonal factors. The real duties of a superintendent, prin- 
cipal, or any other supervisor cannot be accurately defined 
in rules and regulations ; the real accomplishment cannot 
be exhibited by statistical facts. Bey-ond question, the 
issues of real moment to the school system have been con- 
fused and distorted, and the community confidence has been 
undermined by the extraordinary volume of trivial discus- 

^ See Exhibits I, p. 26, II, p. 28, and III, p. 112, for analytical out- 
lines of the administrative and supervisory organization of the public 
schools of American cities of three hundred thousand population and 
over. 



6 City School Supervision 

sion and criticism growing out of ignorance and bias, and in- 
spired by certain organized self-interests. Public criticism, 
to have value, should be based on sound evidence and bul- 
warked by personal responsibility for its utterance. Every- 
where in New York one encounters criticism; but in 
few places and in small quantity is testimony of worth 
volunteered. 



CHAPTER II 
THE NATURE OF SCHOOL CONTROL 

LEGISLATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION, AND 
INSPECTION 

N order that certain basic conceptions as to the essential 
functions of the supervision of schools may be set forth, 
it is appropriate here to distinguish the four fundamental 
forms of control to which the schools of a modern metro- 
politan public school system are, and must be, subject.^ 

Legislative Control is that form of regulation exerted 
by the authority possessing final governmental jurisdiction. 
In the case of schools belonging to a public educational sys- 
tem this control is usually centered in the state legislature. 
The restrictions and obligations of legislative action are 
those defined by the fundamental laws — the state and fed- 
eral constitutions.^ 

* For a further treatment of the several forms of control here indi- 
cated, see Edward C. Elliott, Instruction: Its Organization and Con- 
trol. In High School Education, edited by C. H. Johnston (Chas. 
Scribner's Sons, New York, 1912). 

* " The laws controlling the local government of the school systems 
of the several cities of the State are quite generally incorporated into 
the charters which define the municipal powers and duties of such 
cities. This is fundamentally wrong and is not productive of sound 
school admitiistration. The schools of a city are established for the 
purpose of providing educational facilities for the children residing 
therein. The authority which makes it necessary for such city to pro- 
vide schools is the State Constitution. The Constitution does not pro- 
vide that such schools shall be local schools, but, on the contrary, 
provides that they shall be a part of the common school system of the 
State. Under the same authority the Legislature has established a 
State system of common schools. The Legislature annually appropri- 

7 



8 City School Supervision 

Administrative Control is that vested in the agents cre- 
ated by legislative action, or recognized as such by an im- 



ates large sums of money for the support and maintenance of such sys- 
tem. These sums of money are annually apportioned among all the 
schools. The State provides for the general direction and control of 
its schools. The schools, wherever located, are State schools and not 
local schools. This educational policy of the State is sound. It has 
been repeatedly upheld by our courts. The courts have even held that 
where a locality may fail or refuse to set in operation the established 
machinery for the maintenance of schools the State may not only step 
in and open and maintain such schools, even at the expense of the 
locality, but that it becomes the duty of the State to take such action. 

" The maintenance of schools is therefore a State function. In mak- 
ing provisions for the operation of such schools, the State may utilize 
the machinery already created in a community for the exercise of any 
of the powers necessary to the maintenance of local government. This 
may be done as a matter of economy of administration or for serving 
such other convenience as appears necessary. The work of the schools 
of a city and their management and control were intended to be entirely 
independent of the usual municipal affairs which are incident to the 
government of a city. The custom, however, of including in a city 
charter the law relating to the local management of schools has often 
resulted in regarding the schools as purely municipal affairs. This 
custom has also in many cases caused municipal officers and local 
political organizations to look upon school positions as places to be 
controlled in the same manner as municipal positions are generally 
controlled. Moreover, the mere fact that this law is in the charter 
presents the temptation to modify such law for political or personal 
reasons whenever a city charter comes before the Legislature for gen- 
eral consideration. The political vicissitudes of our day lead to much 
legislation affecting the purely political side of our city affairs. When 
one party is in power, the charters of cities will often be modified so 
as to give such party a distinct advantage in the municipal affairs of 
the cities of the State. When the opposite party regains power, it will 
make similar changes in city charters and for the same purpose. This 
action invariably leads to legislation modifying the law governing the 
schools and very generally to the disadvantage of the school interests. 
This was notably true of the proposed legislation on this subject be- 
fore the Legislature of 191 1. The chief illustration was the proposed 
charter of New York City. There was no demand from those charged 
with the responsibility of the supervision and management of the 
schools of that city for any material modification of the law relating 
to the local management of such schools. The proposition to modify 



The Nature of School Control 9 

plied legal sanction. Boards of education, boards of trus- 
tees, superintendents, inspectors, etc., are common types of 



such law came from those charged with no official responsibility in the 
general control of such schools. The legislation suggested was opposed 
not only by the city officials charged with the responsibility of the gen- 
eral direction of such schools but by all prominent men throughout the 
country who were best entitled to speak upon sound principles of school 
administration. The attention of school officers and the teaching staff 
was for several months diverted from the work in the schools to the 
necessity of protecting their interests and the interests of the schools. 
All this was bad and was a direct loss to the schools. New York was 
not the only city whose school interests were affected in this way. Pro- 
posed general amendments to the articles on the schools in the charters 
of seven other cities were before the Legislature. 

" All this embarrassment to the schools may easily be remedied. 
The law regulating the local control and management of the schools of 
the several cities of the State should be taken out of the city charters 
and should be incorporated in the Education Law. This action may be 
taken without confusion and without decreasing in the slightest the 
powers now conferred upon local superintendents or boards of educa- 
tion. Three additional articles might be incorporated into the Educa- 
tion Law, one for each class of cities. 

" The present appears to be an opportune time to inaugurate a move- 
ment to effect such action. A commission employed by the Governor is 
engaged in drafting a uniform charter for cities of the third class. If 
this commission should recommend uniform laws for the management 
and control of the schools in these cities, such laws should be incor- 
porated into the Education Law instead of the uniform charter for 
cities of the third class. The law already enacted in relation to the 
schools in the cities of the second class should be transferred from the 
charter for such cities to the Education Law. The laws now govern- 
ing the school systems of New York and Rochester are similar in 
many respects. A law could be drawn to meet the local necessities 
of each of the cities of the first class. If this is not feasible, separate 
provisions for each of such cities could be made a part of the Education 
Law. So long as the laws governing the local management of the 
schools are continued as a part of the city charters, just so long will 
the school systems of the cities be subject to the interference and con- 
fusion which several have recently experienced. 

" In the preparation of a law to govern the local management of the 
schools of our cities, sound business principles and pedagogical stand- 
ards must be respected, to the end that our city schools shall meet more 
completely and efficiently the constantly increasing demands which are 



10 City School Supervision 

such agents. Administrative activities have, however, cer- 
tain special characteristics which distinguish them from 

made upon them. The following fundamental principles must be 
observed : 

" I. The absolute diTorcement of all school affairs from the other 
municipal and political activities of the city. 

" 2. The professional direction of the school system should be under 
the charge of the superintendent of schools. This should include the 
right to nominate assistant superintendents, supervisors, directors and 
teachers, and to determine qualifications of teachers, courses of study, 
etc. 

" 3. The purely business administrative features of the system should 
be under the management and direction of the board of education. 

"4. Boards of estimate and apportionment or common councils 
should be required to include in the tax budget annually a specified 
minimum amount for the maintenance of the schools. They should 
have discretion to include a greater sum. 

" 5. The funds set apart for the schools should be under the direct 
control of the board of education and should be expended on the order 
of the board only. 

" 6. The sites selected for buildings and the plans and specifications 
for repairs or additions to present buildings or the construction of new 
buildings should require the approval of the board of education. 

" 7. The board of education must be composed of a number sufficient 
to make it a strong, representative, workable body. It should not be so 
small in numbers that one or two may dominate its action. It should 
not be so large as to make it cumbersome and unwieldy. A board of 
seven members is suggested. 

"8. The method of electing the members of a board of education is 
important. Members should not be chosen at a general election. When 
members are so chosen, the interests of the schools are involved in the 
political issues of the city and men are often chosen upon the determi- 
nation of the political issues involved instead of their special fitness to 
serve in such capacity. The best men in a city will often decline to' 
allow their names to be used at a popular election involving municipal 
politics when they would willingly accept an appointment from the 
mayor and render the schools of their city valuable services. In a com- 
munity desiring the members to be chosen directly by the people, the 
election should be a separate school election and not at the same time 
as the municipal election. The method of selecting members of a board 
of education, therefore, should be either by appointment by the mayor 
or by election by the people at a date specifically set for such election." 
— Commissioner A. S. Draper in Eighth (1912) Report of the New 



The Nature of School Control ii 

those which are legislative, supervisory, or inspectorial. 
They are, first of all, general and executive in their nature, 
in that they do not depend upon technical knowledge for 
their ready and successful performance. Furthermore, the 
powers, duties, and responsibilities of administrators are 
usually defined and imposed directly by law, or prescribed 
by an authority established in law for this purpose. 

Competent administrative direction requires a broad ap- 
preciation of the function of public education in modern 
community life, a readiness and promptness of action for 
the establishment and preservation of those conditions that 
guarantee equality of educational opportunity, and a ready 
executive capacity for performing the customary duties of 
effective control, and for meeting new needs as they develop. 
It depends for its effectiveness upon methods that are gen- 
eral, clerical, and mechanical, rather than upon those re- 
quiring special, technical skill. It is non-technical, non- 
professional ; it operates impersonally, and is, for the most 
part, regulated by the provisions of the educational code, 
the municipal charter, and the local regulations and by-laws. 

This is the variety of control properly exercised by the 
Board of Education and lay officials. Its attention centers 
in establishing and supporting schools, in providing ade- 
quate accommodations and equipment, in securing a suffi- 
cient number of properly qualified teachers, and in observ- 
ing the restrictions and requirements of the higher state 
authority. 

Supervisory Control depends for its effectiveness upon 
agents who possess technical and expert knowledge of edu- 
cational processes, and who are capable of employing that 
knowledge for the development and advancement of the 
institutions coming under their control. 

York State Education Department, pp. iS ff., " The Law Governing City 
School Systems." 

See also in this connection E. C. Moore, How New York City Ad- 
ministers Its Schools, especially Chapters I to IV (World Book Com- 
pany, 1913). 



12 City School Superinsion 

Stipenasory control is concerned .with zvhat should be 
taught, and when it should be taught; to zvhom, by whom, 
how, and to what purpose. It is professional and technical. 
It aims to establish and to maintain for the individual 
teacher and the individual pupil standards of v^orth and 
attainment. It is concerned, primarily, not with the ma- 
chinery of education, but with the character and worth of 
its products. It centers its ejffort upon individuals. It is 
emphatically constructive, rather than merely executive. 
For its best results it demands the completest cooperation 
between the members of the teaching and supervisory 
staffs. For the proper exercise of this form of control 
superintendents, directors, and principals should be held 
directly responsible and should be given entire freedom of 
action. Supervisory control does not lie within the legiti- 
mate province of the Board of Education or of other 
municipal boards and officers. 

Inspectorial Control is similar in nature to supervisory 
control, yet to be distinguished from it. It is, also, special 
in character, and is based upon expert knowledge of the 
conditions and technique of successful and efficient in- 
struction. It differs from the supervisory activity in that 
its primary purpose is not personal, constructive service. 
Its aim is toward an impersonal, objective measurement of 
the results and worth of the school. It serves to appraise 
the products of administrative organization and supervisory 
direction, and on the basis of this appraisal to propose new 
standards, and new methods. Thus, narrowly interpreted, 
an inspector's special function is to pass upon worth and 
efficiency. A supervisor must do this and more; he must 
raise the worth and increase the efficiency. 

There has not been, up to the present time, any wide- 
spread recognition in American education of the great im- 
portance of the inspectorial form of control. Yet, as the 
public schools have expanded and have become more intri- 
cate in their organization, so much greater has become the 
necessity of means whereby the essential operations may be 



The Nature of School Control 13 

subjected to a checking and valuating process. The schools 
have lacked an audit that would exhibit how well that which 
is being attempted is being done ; an audit that would reveal 
the degree to which the machinery of organization is 
adapted to its purpose; an audit that would display the 
essential facts of census, attendance, and rate of progress of 
pupils, the accomplishments of teachers, and an analysis 
of the real cost in money of the several and numerous ac- 
tivities that enter into school education. 

Inspectorial control should be exercised by duly consti- 
tuted agencies distinct from those agencies or individuals 
that are primarily responsible for administrative and su- 
pervisory direction. Otherwise, there will be no imper- 
sonal judgments of worth founded on actual results and 
accomplishments. 

Strictly speaking, each one of the several matters enter- 
ing into the make-up of the school is subject, in some 
degree, to each one of the different forms of control indi- 
cated. There is legislative control of ideals, finance, build- 
ings, teachers, instruction, discipline, and, indeed, of all the 
different features of organized education. There is like- 
wise an administration, a supervision, and an inspection 
of each. 

All of the evidence considered has emphasized the impor- 
tant fact that there seems to be nowhere, at least within the 
school system, a clear and conscious discrimination between 
those activities of control that are administrative in charac- 
ter and those that are supervisory or inspectorial. The ab- 
sence of this distinction in the minds of those charged with 
the main responsibility has been, it is believed, an important 
factor in retarding the progress and complicating the devel- 
opment of the public school system. 



CHAPTER III 

THE NEW YORK CITY SYSTEM OF SCHOOL 
CONTROL AND ITS GENERAL RELATIONS 
TO THE SUPERVISORY ORGANIZATION 

HISTORICAL 

A BRIEF review of the recent historical development 
of the existing plan of school organization and con- 
trol will serve as a basis for an understanding of many of 
the characteristic features of the educational system of the 
city. 

The Greater New York charter (chapter 387 of the Laws 
of 1897) united and consolidated into one municipality 
the former City of New York, comprising what is now the 
Borough of Manhattan and the Borough of The Bronx; 
the former City of Brooklyn, which is coincident with 
Kings County; the County of Queens, which is now the 
Borough of Queens; and the County of Richmond, which 
is now the Borough of Richmond.^ In this large territory, 
covering about 320 square miles, and containing at the time 
a population of three and a quarter millions,^ there were 

^ " All the municipal and public corporations and parts of municipal 
and public corporations, including cities, villages, towns, and school dis- 
tricts, but not including counties within the following territory, to wit : 
The County of Kings, the County of Richmond, the City of Long 
Island City, the Towns of Newtown, Flushing, and Jamaica, and that 
part of the Town of Hempstead, in the County of Queens, which is 
westerly of a straight line drawn . . ., are hereby annexed to, united, 
and consolidated with the municipal corporation known as the Mayor, 
Aldermen, and Commonalty of the City of New York, to be hereafter 
called 'The City of New York.'" — The Greater New York Charter, 
1897, sec. I. 

' 2,507,414 (1890); 3,437,202 (1900). U. S. Census. 

14 



New York City System of School Control 15 

three city school systems : that of the former City of New 
York, that of the former City of Brooklyn, and that of 
the former City of Long Island City. In addition to these 
regularly organized city school systems, there were thirty- 
five school districts in the County of Queens and twenty-nine 
school districts in the County of Richmond, each under an 
independent school board or board of trustees. Quite ob- 
viously, the variation in the forms of administrative pro- 
cedure, in the plans of supervisory and inspectorial control, 
in the programs of study, in the standards of teaching, and 
in the methods of selecting teachers was as great as the 
number of school boards. Indeed, the widest differences 
often prevailed between schools within the same city. The 
chief problem sought to be solved by the Greater New 
York charter was the administrative organization of these 
many radically different school units into one harmonious 
school system.^ 

* " The method of administering the schools in the various communi- 
ties now consolidated into a single city were as various as the schools 
themselves. In the old City of New York (now the Boroughs of Man- 
hattan and The Bronx) there was a Board of Education, consisting of 
twenty-one members, vested with powers chiefly legislative, and a Board 
of Superintendents, consisting of a City Superintendent and fifteen 
assistant superintendents, charged with the general supervision of the 
schools and the licensing and nomination of teachers. In addition, the 
city was divided into thirty-five inspection districts, for each of which 
the Mayor was authorized to appoint five inspectors, whose duty it was 
to visit and inspect the schools of their several districts and report the 
results of their investigations. In the City of Brooklyn, there was a 
Board of Education, consisting of forty-five members, which possessed 
not only legislative powers, but, through local committees, — a local 
committee of three members being appointed for each school, — the 
power to nominate and appoint all teachers; and a Superintendent of 
Schools and two associate superintendents, whose duty it was to super- 
vise schools and to license teachers. In what is now the Borough of 
Queens, in addition to the Board of Education of Long Island City, 
there were thirty-five school districts, each having an independent 
school board or board of trustees. In what is now the Borough of 
Richmond, there were twenty-nine school districts, each under an inde- 
pendent school board or board of trustees." — First Annual Report of 
the City Superintendent of Schools, 1899, p. 3. 



1 6 City School Supervision 

The charter of 1897, which went into effect in February, 
1898, provided for four borough school boards for the 
five boroughs as organized.^ Each of these school boards 
had practically entire control of the schools within its own 
borough. Each borough had its own superintendent of 
schools and a staff of assistant (associate) superintendents. 
There was a board of education for the consolidated city, 
composed of nineteen representatives from the borough 
school boards.^ This " central " board of education, as it 
soon came to be known, had authority chiefly over fiscal 
affairs and physical matters, the most important of which 
were, (a) the distribution of the funds provided by the 
charter for the payment of teachers' salaries; (b) the rec- 
ommendation of school sites to the city authorities and the 
erection of school buildings; (c) the establishment of mini- 
mum qualifications — academic and professional — for 
teachers' licenses. This board also appointed a city super- 
intendent of schools, whose chief powers consisted in (a) 
nominating to the Board of Education, from a list pre- 
pared by the Municipal Civil Service Commission, the four 
members of the Board of Examiners; (b) reporting upon 
the condition of the schools of the city, without, however, 
any real authority to remedy defects; (c) presiding over 
meetings of the Board of Examiners and voting on the 
granting of licenses. 

Each borough school board was authorized to appoint 

^ Manhattan and Bronx, twenty-one members; Brooktyn, forty-five 
members ; Queens, nine members ; Richmond, nine members. 

^ The Borough of Manhattan and the Borough of The Bronx con- 
stituted a single unit, having eleven representatives (including the 
chairman) in the central board of education, one borough superintend- 
ent of schools, and sixteen associate superintendents. The Borough of 
Brooklyn had six representatives (including the chairman) in the cen- 
tral board of education, one borough superintendent of schools, and 
eight associate superintendents. The Borough of Queens and the Bor- 
ough of Richmond each had one representative (the chairman) on the 
central board of education, a borough superintendent of schools, and 
two associate superintendents. 



New York City System of School Control 17 

teachers, but only on the nomination of the borough board 
of superintendents, except in Brooklyn, where, by the terms 
of the charter, the old method of appointment through a 
local committee for each school was continued.^ 



THE REVISED CHARTER 

The early experiences under the first charter were suffi- 
cient to demonstrate that the possibility of securing under 
its provisions any effective unification or direction of the 
schools of the city was very remote.^ The Revised Charter 
of 1 90 1, which, as regards the school system, became effec- 
tive in February, 1902, endeavored to correct the weak- 
ness of the former charter by increasing, to a marked de- 
gree, the centralized control of the public schools. 

The reorganization, under the Revised Charter, abolished 

* For a discussion of the method of appointing teachers in Brook- 
lyn, see First Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, 
1899, pp. 86-88. 

* (a) " The system adopted in 1898 was a compromise, and, like 
many compromises, failed to work satisfactorily. Under it there was 
difficulty in fixing responsibility; there was more or less duplication of 
labor; there was a lack of uniformity in educational work; conflicts 
of authority between the central board and the school boards occurred. 
Especially was there a lack of harmony between the Brooklyn School 
Board and the Board of Education, which the Manhattan-Bronx School 
Board, by virtue of selecting eleven of the nineteen members, practically 
controlled. The peculiar ' Brooklyn idea,' — the local committee sys- 
tem, — which differentiated that borough absolutely from the rest of 
the city in the appointment and promotion of teachers, was a potent 
cause of friction. The strong demand for unity in educational ad- 
ministration was heeded by the Commission appointed to revise the 
Charter; and the amended charter passed by the legislature in 1901 radi- 
cally changed the administrative machinery and introduced a new sys- 
tem." — Palmer, The New York Public School, pp. 298-299. (b) " The 
plan of school administration led to constant confusion and misunder- 
standing, and even litigation between the central authorities and the 
borough authorities, so that but little progress was made in the schools 
between 1898 and 1902, when the charter was modified to assume its 
present form." — City Superintendent Maxwell, Communication of Sep- 
tember 6, 191 1, 



1 8 City School Supervision 

the several borough school boards and provided for one 
board of education for the entire city, consisting of forty- 
six members, appointed by the Mayor — twenty-two for 
the Borough of Manhattan, fourteen for the Borough of 
Brooklyn, four for the Borough of The Bronx, four for 
the Borough of Queens, and two for the Borough of Rich- 
mond. As a safeguard against the imwieldy size of the 
board of education, provision was made for an executive 
committee of fifteen, " for the care, government, and man- 
agement of the public school system of the city." Each 
borough was to be represented on the committee, to which 
the board was authorized to depute any of its administra- 
tive powers. 

By far the most significant feature of this revised plan of 
school control was the centralized organization of the scheme 
of supervision. The powers of the City Superintendent of 
Schools were greatly extended. For the first time in the 
history of the Greater New York territory, the City Super- 
intendent became the real, responsible, professional head 
of the school system,^ and in many respects the most im- 
portant agency in its development. The offices of borough 
superintendent and associate borough superintendent were 
abolished. A Board of Superintendents was provided for, 
consisting of the City Superintendent and eight associate 
city superintendents. To this board extensive powers were 
given. The practical initiative in all matters purely educa- 
tional was committed to it. It was authorized to recommend 
to the Board of Education grades and kinds of licenses, and 
the qualifications therefor; to establish, subject to the ap- 
proval of the Board of Education, rules for the gradation, 
promotion, and transfer of pupils ; to recommend text- 
books, apparatus, and other scholastic supplies; to recom- 
mend courses of study; to prescribe regulations relative to 
methods of teaching, and make syllabuses of topics in the 
various subjects taught; and to nominate tO' the Board of 

* As limited by those powers given to the Board of Superintendents. 



LE 



=< 



OF EDUCATION (46) 



At 
30L(7J 



Special 
Schools (7) 



Vocational 
Schools (s) 



Studies and 
Text-books is) 



Lectures and 
Libraries (7) 



H 



The Board or Examiners (s) 



Superintenocnt 
" Libraries 



Supervisor or 
Lectures 



tf-dfkTt 

rORMS (I) 
RECORDS 



Vocational 
School stn 



J 



Directors or Special Branches (9) 



SuPEI^INTENOENT OF NauTICAU ScHOOL 



JK^I9II 



Administrative and SopeRvisoRv Orcanization 



THE 



BOROUGH 
PRESIDENT 



BOARD- ESTIMATE 



PEOPLE 



THE MAYOR 



I THE BOARD i the executive commi ttee qs) i OF EDUCATION (46) I 



Finance (s) 



Supplies w 



Buildings f9) 



AuoiroR 



SuPERINrtNOENT 

«■ Supplies 



Care o' 
Buildings (7) 



SuPERINTENOtNT 

OF BuiLOINCI 
AND GROI/NDS 



C O M M 



Sites o) 



ATHLEriCSte)BYLAWS(5) 



Supervisor 

o' JANITORS 



TEES 



Elementary 
Schools O) 



High *nd' 
Training 
Schools 0) 



Nautical 
School (?) 



Special 
Schools (?) 



Vocational 
Schools (s) 



Studies and 
Text-books is) 



Lectures *nd 
Libraries (7) 



CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 



PERMANENf Census Board (3) 



Board »' Retirement (7) 



MCMBCRS 

Nominationo) 



School (3) 
Management 



-| BOARD 0^ SUPERINTENDENTS 

nTc"p"M'"MTT"T"rj_EV_E"s" r 

' iTEXr-BOOK^THicH fJlTTRAINlNG IIiTEvENING (lilVACAnON (llJC 

Ywl LibrarieJI Schools I Schools! Schools | Schools! 



(9) 



Course 
Stuoyw 



Compulsory 
EoucArioN 



The Board <>' Examiners (s) 



Superintendent 
'" Libraries 



Supervisor op 
Lectures 



reWrtJ 

FORMS W 
RECOROS 



INSPECTORS (4) 



DISTRICT 



SUPERINTENDENTS (26) 



PRINCIPALS (450) 



Assistants ro Principals 



HtADSor Departments 



Vocational 
School Sill 



Directors or Special Branches (9) 



SuPfrflNTENOENT OF Nautical School I 



TEACHERS O^^sej 



The Control of the Public School System of the: City of New York -1911 



New York City System of School Control 19 

Education persons to fill all vacancies in the teaching force. 
Nominations (except principals of high schools, and prin- 
cipals and teachers of training schools) were required to 
be made from eligible lists prepared by the Board of Ex- 
aminers, the Board of Superintendents having liberty to 
select from the first three names on the list. Teachers were 
to be appointed, as far as practicable, for districts within 
the boroughs in which they resided. 

All the borough and associate borough superintendents 
were continued in office, either as associate city superintend- 
ents or district superintendents. 

THE GENERAL SCHEME OF CONTROL 

The accompanying diagram attempts to represent the re- 
lation and interdependence of the several boards, officers, 
and other instrumentalities that constitute the organized 
scheme of public school control. It further exhibits the 
complexity of this organized scheme due to the increasing 
division of control and the resulting specialization. 

THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF THE EXISTING PLAN OF 
CONTROL 

The City Superintendent of Schools, in his fifth annual 
report for the year ending July 31, 1903, the first complete 
year of the operation of the Revised Charter, set forth the 
essential principle underlying the revised scheme of educa- 
tional control. 

" During the entire period covered by this report the 
public school system of the City of New York has been 
operated under the plan laid down by the Revised Charter, 
which became effective, as far as the schools were con- 
cerned, on February 3, 1902. By August i, 1902, when the 
period covered by this report begins, what properly might 
be called the period of transition from the old plan of school 
management to the new centralized method of control had 



20 City School Supervision 

passed. By that time the new Board of Education, of 
forty-six members, was fully organized, and was discharg- 
ing, without hesitancy, all the functions of administrative 
control exercised formerly by a central Board of Education 
and four borough school boards. The Board of Superin- 
tendents, consisting of eight members, appointed as Asso- 
ciate City Superintendents, and the City Superintendent, 
as chairman, similarly had succeeded to functions distrib- 
uted formerly among four borough boards of superintend- 
ents and the City Superintendent. Some of these func- 
tions formerly distributed among the borough, but now 
vested in a single Board of Superintendents, are as follows : 
Nomination of teachers, the recommendation of scholastic 
supplies and text-books, the suggestion of courses of study, 
the direction of school organization and methods of instruc- 
tion, and in general the performance of all duties arising 
under those sections of the charter which place the initiative 
in all matters purely educational in the hands of the Board 
of Superintendents, subject to the approval of the Board 
of Education. Under the old plan the several boards of 
borough superintendents had been free to act without uni- 
formity, with the result that there existed in the City of 
New York four school systems, all differing in aims and in 
standards. 

" By this time, too, the city had been divided into forty- 
six school districts. To each pair of these districts had been 
assigned a district superintendent, who, thereby, was made 
the local supervising officer, and, as such, was held respon- 
sible for the schools entrusted to his care. Under the old 
plan these superintendents, of whom there are tvv^enty-six, 
had been compelled to devote much of their time, as mem- 
bers of boards of borough superintendents, to preparing 
suggestions for administrative legislation. Under the new 
system these men were released from this unnecessary work 
and made free to give their time to actual supervision in 
the schools, a most important branch of school administra- 
tion, which, heretofore, had been too much neglected. 



New York City System of School Control 21 

Under the plan now in effect the district superintendent is 
absolutely responsible for the scholastic welfare of each 
school in his territory. This responsibility malvcs it neces- 
sary that he should be thoroughly familiar with the inner 
workings of each school. At the same time this plan puts 
into each neighborhood an officer to whom the citizen can 
go for the righting of grievances — a fact which brings the 
administration of the schools into more intimate personal 
contact with the people. 

" The districting of the schools was a necessary prelimi- 
nary to the appointment by the borough presidents of the 
forty-six local school boards. These boards consist each of 
five members, appointed by the borough presidents; one 
member of the Board of Education, assigned by the presi- 
dent of the Board of Education; and a district superin- 
tendent, who, by virtue of his office, becomes the educa- 
tional adviser of the local boards within his territory. The 
creation of these local school boards, and the manner in 
which they have discharged their functions, have brought 
the administration of the schools very much closer to the 
people. In the first place, the local school board, which 
represents the people, has direct representation in the Board 
of Education through the member of that body who is, 
ex officio, a member of the local school board. In the 
second place, through the district superintendent, the local 
board and the people secure the presentation of their views 
to the Board of Superintendents. 

" The system of representation, moreover, works in an- 
other direction. The Board of Superintendents has its 
representative member, the City Superintendent, in the 
Board of Education, and that body, through him, as well as 
through its individual members, can express its views to 
the local school boards, and to the district superintendents. 
. " A careful study of the workings of the system in the 
several districts soon convinced me that responsibility among 
members of the Board of Superintendents must also be 
determined and definitely fixed. Such a plan, moreover, I 



22 City School Supervision 

felt would give the teachers and the people a more direct 
representation in the Board of Superintendents than the 
charter contemplated. To bring about this improvement 
I introduced a scheme of grouping several school districts 
into a division, and assigned to the care of each division 
one of the Associate City Superintendents. This plan, while 
not prescribed by the charter, is entirely in consonance with 
its intent, and certainly is in no way prohibited. I found 
it expedient to constitute seven of these divisions among 
the elementary schools, and to place the high schools of 
the entire city in the eighth division. Under this plan the 
district superintendents and, through them, the schools in 
their respective districts, are made directly responsible to 
an Associate City Superintendent, who, in turn, is respon- 
sible for the educational welfare of his division of the city. 
The Division Superintendent, under this plan, is supposed 
to represent directly in the Board of Superintendents the 
interests of the schools under his charge. 

" There remained three District Superintendents not 
needed for district work among the elementary schools 
proper. One of these was assigned to the care of summer 
schools and playgrounds; the second to the supervision of 
the evening schools, and the third to the inspection of high 
schools. The Associate City Superintendents also were ap- 
pointed to committees, each of which is charged with the 
development of some important phase of public education. 
This scheme of supervision throughout the city, as can be 
readily seen, is one which fixes responsibility, instead of 
scattering it. Under such a system it becomes a simple 
matter to lay one's finger on the man responsible when 
aught goes wrong. When the responsibility has been fixed, 
the correction of defects is comparatively simple. So defi- 
nite is this responsibility that some one person is made 
responsible for the welfare of each child in school, and 
culpable of neglect if any child of school age is allowed 
to be out of school. . . . 

" Under the new charter the City Superintendent was 



New York City System of School Control 23 

required to assume many new duties. He was required, 
for the first time, to take an active part in the actual man- 
agement of the schools. The inhibition in the charter 
against his ' interference in the actual conduct of any 
school ' was annulled. He assumed the educational func- 
tions that naturally belong to his office. The full control 
of the department of truancy was placed in his hands, in- 
stead of being divided among several school bodies. 

" The Board of Examiners, under the new charter, con- 
tinued practically its old duty, with the welcome exception 
that a single standard of licenses was substituted for the 
old condition, where each borough had different require- 
ments for the same licenses. 

" That this system of cross-representation from the 
people to the Board of Education, and to the Board of 
Superintendents, and the City Superintendent, has worked 
smoothly is established by the fact that there has been no 
demand for any material change in the charter. Each ele- 
ment of the system has moved harmoniously for the interest 
of the schools, and has demonstrated its usefulness in the 
particular field to which the charter assigned it. As far 
as the schools themselves are concerned, the effect of the 
Revised Charter during this period is to be determined 
most accurately by the year's record of actual accomplish- 
ment. A statement of what has been done follows, and on 
this I am willing to found my assertion that centralized 
control of education has been of material benefit to the 
schools." ^ 

The extent to which this system of supervisory organiza- 
tion has, after a decade of practise, been successful in 
establishing those conditions that underlie the effective 
activity of teachers and the best welfare of children is a 
fundamental question discussed in this volume. 

* Fifth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, pp. 
ii-iS- 



24 City School Supervision 

THE GENERAL NATURE OF THE EXISTING PLAN OF CONTROL 

On the administrative as well as the supervisory side, 
the present organization is the result of a compromise, 
rather than of a carefully devised plan to meet specified 
ends. The consolidation act of 1897, and the Revised 
Charter of 1901, were obliged to recognize the practises and 
organization of public schools as they then existed in the 
several cities and boroughs. The obligations of the differ- 
ent municipalities entering intO' the Greater City needed to 
be carried out; the rights of individuals already possess- 
ing a status must be protected. A decade and a half of 
compromise would seem to be sufficient. It is now impera- 
tive that compromise give way to some plan established for 
the single purpose of directly meeting the educational needs 
of the children of the city. 

It is relevant at this point to indicate one of the principal 
conclusions of the present study: That, under the existing 
organization and mode of operation, the schools of the 
city are under the continued necessity of reacting to a maxi- 
mum amount of external administrative control, are influ- 
enced by a minimum amount of competent expert and con- 
structive supervision, and do not receive the benefits of 
regular inspection, and of unbiased estimates Of the value 
of their methods and products. The major energies of the 
supervisory staff, including the City Superintendent, asso- 
ciate superintendents, district superintendents, supervisors, 
directors, as well as principals and assistant principals, are 
consumed by the general administrative and routine, cleri-. 
cal duties. Altogether too little genuine and progressive 
leadership influences the work of the teachers or the accom- 
plishment of pupils. This general situation is in large meas- 
ure due to the previously mentioned failure to distinguish 
between the essential administrative, supervisory, and in- 
spectorial forms of control. In this connection the mere 
business of external organization and operation of a system 
of public schools for a rapidly expanding city of a diverse 



New York City System of School Control 25 

population of five millions has been, it must be admitted, 
a disturbing factor of no small influence. 

The schools have been maintained under a form of con- 
trol that is distinctly administrative and mechanical ; a form 
of control that has not kept a single eye on the real sub- 
stance and worth of teaching and education. The schools 
have not been kept under the influence of that effective su- 
pervision and inspection which gives unity, purpose, and 
high standard of attainment to the work of teachers. There 
is a striking lack of consciousness within the school system 
of the radical difference between merely keeping the schools 
in operation, and keeping the schools in operation so as to 
produce tangible residts of high quality. The organisation 
of the school system has been from the top down, rather 
than from the bottom up, — a procedure as obstructive to 
progress and real grozvth in education as it is in other 
human institutions. 



26 



City School Supervision 

EXHIBIT I. THE BOARD OF SCHOOL CONTROL 



City 


Population 


Name of 
Board 


Selection 


No. of 
Members 


Term 


New York 


4,766,883 


Board of 
Education 


By Mayor; from the sev- 
eral boroughs as apportioned 
by city charter 


46 


5 years 


Chicago 


2,185,283 


Board of 
Education 


By Mayor, with advice and 
consent of council; from city 
at large 


21 


3 years 


Philadelphia 


1, 549,008 


Board of 

Public 
Education 


By judges of Courts of Com- 
mon Pleas; from district at 
large 


IS 


6 years 


St. Louis 


687,029 


Board of 
Education 


Popular election; from city 
at large 


12 


6 years 


Boston 


670,585 


School 
Committee 


Popular election; from city 
at large 


s 


3 years 


Cleveland 


560,663 


Board of 
Education 




7 


4 years 














Baltimore 


558,485 


Board of 
School Com- 
missioners 


By Mayor, with approval 
of Second Branch of city 
council; from city at large 


9 


6 years 


Pittsburg 


533,905 


Board of 

Public 

Education 


By judges of Courts of 
Common Pleas; from district 
at large 


15 


6 years 


Detroit 


465,766 


Board of 
Education 


Popular election; one mem- 
ber from each ward 


18 


4 years 


Buffalo 


423,71s 


Schools under control of the Common Council; the president 
of the Board of Aldermen appoints a standing School Committee 
of 7 members which reports to council 


San 
Francisco 


416,912 


Board of 
Education 


By Mayor; from city at 
large 


4' 


4 years 


Milwaukee 


373,857 


Board of 

School 
Directors 


Popular election; from city 
at large 


IS 


6 years 


Cincinnati ' 


363,591 


Board of 
Education 


Popular election; 3 from 
city at large and 24 from the 
several sub-districts 


II 


4 years 


Newark 


347,469 


Board of 
Education 


By Mayor; from city at 
large 


9 


3 years 


New Orleans 


339.075 


Board of 

School 
Directors 


Popular election; from 
city at large 


S 


4 years 


Washington 


331,069 


Board of 
Education 


By judges of Supreme Court 
of D. C; from district at large 


9 


3 years 


Los Angeles 


319,198 


Board of 
Education 


Popular election; from city 
at large 


7 


2 years 


Minneapolis 


301,408 


Board of 
Education 


Popular election; from city 
at large 


7 


6 years 



1 The Superintendent of Common Schools, ex officio a member, without right to vote. 



New York City System of School Control 27 

(CITIES OF 300,000 POPULATION AND OVER) 



Compen- 
sation 


Vacancies 
each year 


No. of Wo- 
men Members 


Citation 


Local and Visiting Boards 


None 


g or II 


S (1912) 


City Char- 
ter, Sec. 1061 


46 local boards of 7 members, who are 
the district superintendent, one member of 
the Board of Education, and $ members 
appointed by president of local borough 


None 


7 


I (igii) 


Acts, 191 1, 
relating 1 
Free Schools, 
Sec. 128 


Sub-committee of 3 from Board of Edu- 
cation for each of the 14 districts 


None 


S every 
a years 


None (1912) 


Act of May 
18, 1911, Art. 
I and 2 










None 


4 every 
2 years 


None (1912) 


Act of March 23, 1897, Sec. i, 2, and 4 


None 


I, 2, or 3 


None (1912) 


Acts 1905, Chapter 349, Sec. i 


None 


Varies 




Revised Statutes, Sec. 3897 


None 


3 every 
2 years 


None (1913) 


City Char- 
ter, Sees. 25, 
99 


Board of Commissioners appoints at 
least one resident of each school com- 
munity as a school visitor 


None 


S every 
3 years 


3 (1912) 


Act of May 18, 191 1, Art. 1 and 2 


None 


8 or 10 
every 2 yr. 


None (1912) 


City Charter, 1904, Sees. 593, 614 








City Char- 
ter 1908, Ti- 
tle, XII 


Mayor appoints a Board of Examiners — 
5 citizens to visit and inspect the schools 
and conduct teachers' examinations 


$3000 
per yr. 


I 


I (1910) 


Charter of City and County of San Francisco, Art. VII, 
Ch. I, Sec. I 


None 


S every 
2 years 


2 (1911) 


School Law 
of Wis. 1911, 
p. 275, Sec. I 


A Citizen Committee of 5 appointed by 
Pres. of Board of School Directors to ad- 
vise Board concerning Trade Schools 


None 


Varies 


I (1912) 


Revised 
Statutes, Sec. 
3897 










None 


3 


None (igii) 


1911, Ch. 
233 








None 


S every 
4 years 


None (1909) 


Acts of 1912, No. 214, Sees. 70, 73 


None 


3 


3 (1912) 


Organic 
Law, Sec. 2 








None 


7 every 
2 years 


None (1909) 


Charter of city as amended 1907, Art. 7, Sec. 69. Art. 9, 
Sees. 195-6 




2 every 2 

yr. 3 every 

6th yr. 


I (1911) 


City Charter, Ch. 2, Sec. 2, as amended up to 1905 



' Cincinnati board reorganized, Jan. i, 1914, with seven members. 



28 



City School Supervision 



EXHIBIT n 
GENERAL SUPERVISORY ORGANIZATION 

(Cities of 300,000 Population and Over) 







CITY 


SUPERINTENDENT 




Selected How 


Term (years) 


Salary 


Citation 


New York 


Board of 
Education 


6 


$12,000 


Charter, Sec. 1067 


Chicago 


Board of 
Education 


I 


10,000 


Rules, 1910, Ch. II, 
Art. II 


Philadelphia 


Board of 
Education 


I 


9,000 


By-laws, 1910, Art. I, 
Sec. I 


St. Louis 


Board of 
Education 


4 


8,000 


Rules, 191 1, Rule 3 


Boston 


School 
Committee 


6 


10,000 


Rules, 1912, p. 7, Sec. s 


Cleveland 


Board of 
Education 


Not longer 
than s 


6,000 


Statutes, Sec. 4017a 


Baltimore 


Board of School 
Commissioners 


No rule 


S.ooo 


Rules, igo7. Art. VI 


Pittsburg 


Board of 
Education 


4 


9,000 


Act of May 18, 1911, Sec. 
2223 


Detroit 


Board of 
Education 


3 


6,000 


Charter, Sec. 598 


Buffalo 


Popular 
election 


4 


7,500 


Charter, 1896, Sees. 45, 
330 


San Francisco 


Popular 
election 


4 


4,000 


State constitution. Art. 
IX, Sec. 3 


Milwaukee 


Board of 
Education 


3 


6,000 


Laws, 1907, Ch. 459, 
Sec. 9 


Cincinnati 


Board of 
Education 


5 


10,000 


Rules, 1911, Rule 54 


Newark 


Board of 
Education 


No rule 


7,000 


Rules; Rule 8 


New Orleans 


Board of 
Directors 


4 


S.ooo 


Act 214, 1912, Sec. 70 


Washington 


Board of 
Education 


3 


S.ooo 


Organic Law, Sec. 3 


Los Angeles 


Board of 
Education 




6,000 


Charter, Art. VII, Sec. 
71 


Minneapolis 


Board of 
Education 


3 


S.Soo 


Rules and Regulations, 
1910, Sec. 10 



New York City System of School Control 29 



EXHIBIT II 

GENERAL SUPERVISORY ORGANIZATION 

(Cities op 300,000 Population and Over) 



BOARD OF SUPERINTENDENTS 


ASSOCIATE DEPUTY OR ASSISTANT StJPERINTENDENTS 


Composition 


Selected How 


Number 


City Superintendent and eight 
associate superintendents 


Associates by Board; District by Board 
upon recommendation of Board of Super- 
intendents 


Associate 8 
District 26 


Assistant and District Super- 
intendents 


Board 


Assistant 2 
District 12 


City Superintendent and four 
associate superintendents 


Board, upon recommendation of Super- 
intendent 


Associate 4 
District 10 




Board, upon recommendation of Super- 
intendent 


Assistant 4 


City Superintendent and six 
assistant superintendents 


Board 


Assistant 6 




Board 


Assistant 4 


City Superintendent and six 
assistant superintendents 


Board 


Assistant 6 




Board, upon recommendation of Su- 
perintendent 


Associate 
Assistant 
District 










Superintendent 


Assistant 14 




Superintendent 


Deputy 4 




Board, upon recommendation of Su- 
perintendent 


Assistant 3 




Board, upon recommendation of Su- 
perintendent 


Assistant i 




Board of Education 


Assistant 3 




Board 


Assistant 2 




Board, upon recommendation of Su- 
perintendent 


Assistant 2 




Board 


Deputy I 
Assistant i 




Board, upon recommendation of Su- 
perintendent 


Assistant 2 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SCHOOL AS THE UNIT FOR 
SUPERVISION 

THE PRINCIPAL AS A SUPERVISOR 

WHATEVER may be the theory by which a school 
system is organized and operated, the single school 
must be taken as the working basis for the calculation of 
the educational worth of organization, methods, and re- 
sults. The center of gravity of supervisory control, in so 
far as supervision fulfils its legitimate functions, is the 
principal. The time-worn epigram, " As is the teacher, so 
is the school," has lost, through the complexities, magni- 
tude, and regimentation of public education in the modern 
city, most of its practical significance and force. " As is 
the principal, so is the school " more nearly represents the 
truth. Upon the independence, skill, and qualities of leader- 
ship of the principal depend primarily the ideals, standards, 
and achievements of teachers and pupils. In fact, if the 
already indicated characteristic of effective school super- 
vision be accepted as fundamental — that supei^vision is 
dominantly and constantly personal in its methods and 
objects in order to attain its constructive ends — then, in 
the office of the principal will be found the measure of the 
real, as well as the potential, value of the supervisory 
organization.^ 

* See F. M. McMurry, Elementary School Standards (School Effi- 
ciency Series, World Book Co., 1913) for a detailed presentation of the 
work of elementary school principals as supervisors. 

30 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 31 



SUPERVISORY ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

The evident intention of the existing practise is to regard 
each fully provided and permanent school building as the 
unit for school organization and supervision. A principal 
is the responsible head of such a unit. The separate organi- 
zation, of boys' and girls' schools, or of grammar and pri- 
mary schools, within the same building, which formerly 
obtained, especially previous to 1897, has for the most part 
been discontinued.^ 

The policy of consolidating into one school, under one 
principal, separate school organizations housed in one build- 
ing has been justified by the City Superintendent of Schools 
by the following arguments of unquestionable soundness. 

" On behalf of the policy of placing all the teachers 
and their classes assembled in one building under one 
administrative head, the following claims may justly 
be made : 

" First, there is economy in expenditure for super- 
visory purposes — a very important matter when, 
owing to the marvelously rapid growth of the public 
school system, there is considerable doubt at the begin- 
ning of each year whether the annual appropriation 
will be sujfficient. 

" Second, there is economy in space ; that is, each 

* " There was a strong tendency during the period under review (1890- 
1897), and for several years previously, in favor of consolidating schools 
and departments, where practicable, in the interest of eflficiency and 
economy, and repeated recommendations on this head are to be found 
in the annual reports of the City Superintendent. The Board adopted 
many of these. Consolidations were rendered easier by the abolition, 
in 1897, of the separation between grammar and primary schools. The 
primary schools (forty-eight in all), which had been numbered by them- 
selves, were thereupon renumbered, to follow in consecutive order the 
grammar schools, and since that time, all the schools, without reference 
to the grades taught in them, have been designated simply as public 
schools." — Palmer, The New York Public School, pp. 192-193. 



32 City School Supervision 

building may be made to accommodate a larger num- 
ber of pupils with one organization than with two or- 
ganizations — a consideration of paramount impor- 
tance when the necessity for reducing the number of 
children on part time is concerned. When there is only 
one school organization in a building, it is easier to 
keep every seat occupied through the consolidation of 
small classes than when there are two organizations, 

" Third, the character of the supervision is, as a 
rule, improved, because there is a better opportunity to 
unify and coordinate the work of teachers and pupils. 
A school reaches its highest efficiency when it is so 
organized that all teachers cooperate to reach a com- 
mon purpose, and when the efforts and the experience 
of all teachers are made to reen force the efforts and 
experience of each teacher. Such a result is most 
easily attained under the influence of one directing 
mind."i 

Under the by-laws now governing the organization of 
elementary schools the following provisions for the super- 
vision of such schools are made : ^ 

a. Less than six classes — Senior teacher. Teaches a 

class. 

b. Six to seventeen classes ; grades belozv yA — Teacher 

in charge, i. e., assistant to principal (head of depart- 
ment), or person holding higher license. May be 
required to teach a class. 

c. Six to seventeen classes ; any grades above 6B — Head 

teacher or assistant to principal (head of depart- 

* Seventh Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, pp. 

41-42. .... 

* See Appendix A for these by-laws. For the purpose of indicating 
the recent tendencies, the by-laws, as they existed prior to January i, 
1912, are presented in addition to those now in force, and adopted to 
make the adjustment thought necessary on account of the 1912 salary 
schedules. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 33 

ment), or person holding- higher license. Relieved 
from teaching a class. 
d. Eighteen or more classes — Principal. No teaching. 

The by-laws provide for supervisory and clerical assist- 
ance as follows : 

a. Tzvelve or more classes — Additional teacher. 

b. Twelve to twenty-seven classes — One assistant to prin- 

cipal when school has high school department and 
elementary school has twelve or more classes. 

c. Tzventy-eight or more classes — One assistant to 

principal. 

d. Forty-eight or more classes — Two assistants to prin- 

cipal. 

e. Fifty-eight or more classes — Two additional teachers. 

The following distributions of elementary school organi- 
zations, according to the above classification, have been com- 
piled from the official directory of schools, issued February 
I, 1 91 2. The data of this table show that the problem of 
supervision is the supervision of large schools. 





Man- 
hattan 


Bronx 


Brook- 
lyn 


Queens 


Rich- 
mond 


a. Less than six classes ....... 

b. Six to seventeen classes, below 7A 

c. Six to seventeen classes, above 6B 

d. Eighteen or more classes .... 


I 

5 
I 

153 

3 

25 
74 
57 
34 




2 

5 

37 

5 
IS 
20 

9 

5 


3 
16 

5 
144 

13 
66 
76 
26 
6 


16 
18 
18 
33 

42 
68 

15 
2 
I 


14 

4 

46 

lO 


a. Less than twelve classes .... 

b. Less than twenty-eight classes 

c. Twenty-eight to forty-seven classes 

d. Forty-eight or more classes . . . 

e. Fifty-eight or more classes . . . 


20 
29 

5 





34 City School Supervision 

In effect, the new by-law, as formulated to correspond 
with the provisions of the 1912 salary schedules, (a) in- 
creases the number of classes necessary for " principal " 
schools from twelve to eighteen; (b) adds an additional 
teacher for schools having twelve to forty-eight classes ; (c) 
diminishes from three to two the number of assistants to 
principal in schools of sixty-seven or more classes. 

SUPERVISORY STAFF OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS : STATISTICAL 

Certain distinctive features of the problem of supervision 
of the elementary schools of the city are exhibited in the 
following tables (I and 11). To select, to organize, and to 
maintain on a high level of effectiveness and cooperation a 
staff of nearly nine hundred supervisors in five hundred 
schools are tasks the successful performance of which de- 
mands the best of civic and educational ability. The pro- 
portion of supervisors in elementary schools — i. e., prin- 
cipals, heads of departments, and assistants not teaching — 
to regular teachers, as shown by Table II, would seem to be 
an adequate one ; providing that these supervisors are com- 
petent, and free to devote themselves chiefly to those mat- 
ters that should have first claim upon time, energy, and 
skill.i 

SUPERVISORY STAFF OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS: SALARIES 

A detailed, critical discussion of the complicated and 
widely debated question of the compensation of teachers 
and supervisors in the New York public school system, how- 
ever fundamentally related to quality of service, is not pos- 
sible here. The schedules of salaries of those occupying 
supervisory positions in the elementary schools of the city 
are presented ^ as the basis for the expression of a general 

* As a matter of fact, this freedom for supervisory work does not 
obtain. See F. M. McMurry, Elementary School Standards. 

* See Appendix B for the old (prior to January i, 1912) and the 
new schedules. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 35 

TABLE I 

Showing the Number of Supervisory Officers in Elementary Schools 
— Principals, Heads of Departments, and Assistants Not Teach- 
ing — FOR Each Year during the Five-year Period, 1907-1911, 
Inclusive ^ 





1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 




(p. 31) 


(P-35) 


(p. 41) 


(p. 40) 


(p. 36) 


Manhattan 


33^ 


339 


3S6 


354 


354 


Bronx . . 


64 


71 


77 


79 


84 


Brookljoi . 


276 


276 


302 


316 


316 


Queens . . 


61 


68 


77 


80 


81 


Richmond . 


19 


63 


22 


24 


23 


Totals . 


751 


817 


834 


853 


858 



TABLE II 

Showing the Ratio of the Number of Supervisory Officers to the 
Number of Regular Teachers in Elementary Schools for Each 
Year during the Five-year Period, 1907-1911, Inclusive ^ 





1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 




(P- 31) 


(P- 35) 


(P-4i) 


(p. 40) 


(p. 36) 


Manhattan 


18.3 


18.5 


17.6 


18.0 


18.1 


Bronx . . 


18.9 


18.6 


18.1 


18.8 


18.8 


Brooklyn . 


16.6 


17.8 


17.1 


17.1 


17.4 


Queens . . 


17-5 


17.2 


16.1 


16.0 


16.3 


Richmond . 


17.1 


iS-7 


17.2 


15-8 


16.7 



* Compiled from the annual reports of the City Superintendent of 
Schools. The number in parentheses under each year refers to the 
page of the report from which the data are taken. 



36 City School Supervision 

conclusion regarding the financial attractiveness of these 
positions as compared with the financial attractiveness of 
supervisory positions outside of the City of New York. It 
must be clearly understood that in making this comparison 
there is no implication that the existing salaries for elemen- 
tary school principalships and related positions in the school 
system are either too high or too low. This statement, 
though, seems to have ample foundation: that, speaking 
generally, New York City is paying for supervisory service 
according to a standard equal to, and perhaps above, that 
of other cities. Reliable and comprehensive information 
as to the existing salary schedules of elementary principals 
of other cities is not available; even though this informa- 
tion could be obtained, it is doubtful if it could be here 
employed for comparative purposes. If, however, the sal- 
aries of city superintendents of schools of other cities are 
compared with those of elementary school principals of 
New York City, it may be concluded that in so far as com- 
pensation serves to attract ability, the City of New York 
should be able to compete to a fair advantage for compe- 
tent men and women to supervise schools. 

The following tables (III and IV) are self-explanatory. 
The median annual salary of the city superintendents in one 
hundred and three cities of fifty thousand population and 
over (Census 19 10) is between $3,750 and $4,000; in 
ninety- four cities of between twenty thousand and one hun- 
dred thousand population, in the North Atlantic States, the 
median annual salary is between $2,750 and $3,000. 

Under the old schedules the initial salary of men prin- 
cipals of New York elementary schools was $2,750, increas- 
ing by an annual increment of $250 until the fourth year of 
approved service, when the maximum amount, $3,500, was 
reached. By the provision of the new schedule, the initial 
salary is $2,300, with an annual increment of $240, until 
the sixth year of service, when the maximum, $3,500, is 
reached. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision ^y 

TABLE III 

Showing Distribution of Salaries of Superintendents of Schools in 
Cities of 50,000 Population and Over (Census 1910) ^ 

$2,ooo-$2,25o 2 

2,251- 2,500 6 

2,501- 2,750 2 

2,751- 3,000 16 

3,001- 3,250 o 

3,251- 3,500 . 7 

3,Soi- 3,750 18 

3,751- 4,000 15 

4,001- 4,250 2 

4,251- 4,500 4 

4,501- 4,750 o 

4,751- 5,000 15 

5,001- 5,250 o 

5,251- 5,500 I 

5,501- 6,000 9 

6,001- 7,500 4 

7,501-10,000 2 

Total 103 

Median, $3,75o-$4,ooo 

It is fair to assume that the cities included in Tables 
III and IV maintain, for their chief educational office, 
standards of personality, education, training, and experi- 
ence at least equal to those in force in New York for ele- 
mentary school principals. 

selection of elementary school principals : training ; 
experience; age 

A thorough study of the existing requirements and 
methods of selection of principals and assistants to principal 
has not been made. Certain features of the system now in 
operation are selected for brief consideration. 

* Compiled from Annual Report of U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, 191 1, pp. 620-643. Five cities, no data. 



38 City School Supervision 

TABLE rv 

Showing DiSTRiBtrxioN of Salaries of Sxn>EEiNTENDENTS of Schools in 
Cities of 20,000 to 100,000 Population (North Atlantic States) 
(Census 1910)1 

$i,4oo-$i,soo I 

i>5oi- 1,75° o 

1,751- 2,000 15 

2,001- 2,250 4 

2,251- 2,500 19 

2,501- 2,750 6 

2,7Si- 3.000 18 

3,001- 3,250 o 

3,251- 3,500 12 

3,Soi- 3,750 S 

3,751- 4,000 6 

4,001- 4,250 I 

4,251- 4,500 3 

4,501- 4,750 o 

4,751- 5,000 4 

Total . • • 94 

Median, $2,75o-$3,ooo 

The following- table (V), relating to the education and 
experience of elementary school principals appointed during 
1908-1909, 1909-1910, 1910-1911, and 1911-1912 (Feb- 
ruary i), has been prepared from the official records in 
the City Superintendent's office. It reveals the significant 
fact that approximately three-fourths of those appointed 
to elementary school principalships during recent years not 
only have received their entire education and training within 
the schools of New York, but also have had the whole of 
their teaching experience within the school system. Less 
than 10 per cent of those appointed have had any profitable 
experience in schools outside. Admitting that the system 

* Compiled from Annual Report of U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, 191 1, pp. 620-643. Six cities, no data. States included: Maine, 
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 39 

TABLE V 

Relating to the Education and Experience of Elementary School 
Principals Appointed during 1908-1909, 1909-1910, 1910-1911, and 
1911-1912 (Feb. i) 





Men 


Women 


Total 


Number of Appointments 

Education and Training — 

Entirely within the city 

Partly within the city 

Entirely outside the city 

Previous Experience — 

Entirely within the city 

Outside of the city 


43 

27 

10 

6 

32 
II 


41 

30 
3 
8 

29 
12 


84 

57 
13 
14 

61 
23 



of selection of principals now controlled by the Board of 
Examiners results in the appointment of the most capable 
of those presenting- themselves as candidates, the marked 
tendency of this system toward inbreeding should not be 
permitted to continue unheeded. Every school system re- 
quires for its progressive development the infusion of new 
blood — both teachers ^ and supervisors, whose attitudes 
and standards of value have not become conventionalized, 

* " It will be noticed that during the last three or four years the 
number of persons trained in schools and colleges, other than those of 
the City of New York, has been diminishing. The diminution is prob- 
ably due to the fact that teachers' salaries have been generally increased 
throughout the villages and cities of this state and neighboring states. 
These increased salaries, though seldom, if ever, equal to those paid in 
New York, are really quite as large, if not larger, because in smaller 
places the cost of living is less. Hence of late there has been little 
financial incentive to seek positions in New York. In view of the in- 
crease in the salaries of our women teachers, however, after January i, 
1912, it may be expected that the number of teachers coming from the 
outside will again increase. This is an effect greatly to be desired, as 
nothing is more deadening to a school system than continually filling 



40 City School Supervision 

and whose influence, therefore, counteracts the narrowness 
and provincialism which are inevitable characteristics of the 
highly organized life of a great city. 

New York City has become a great center of industrial, 
commercial, civic, intellectual, and artistic activity; hence 
it offers unusual opportunities for persons of ability, am- 
bition, and energy. If ,New York is to maintain a public 
school system equal to the tremendous task imposed upon 
it, some way must be found to attract to its educational ser- 
vice men and women of mark from outside. At the same 
time the stimulus of promotion must operate for the best of 
those within the school system. A Chinese wall about the 
public schools may protect them from invaders; but the 
gates should be open to those who bring new ideals, fresh 
ideas, new modes of action. Only thus will the schools be 
safe from the blight of isolation and self-sufhciency. 

One other question presents itself from a consideration 
of the data given in Table VI. 

The principal's office is one that requires enthusiasm, 
qualities of leadership, plasticity, training, study. Are these 
qualities best conserved through a system by which, gen- 
erally speaking, appointment is postponed until the age of 
thirty-six, in the case of men, and until forty-four, in the 
case of women ? The issue here raised is a complicated one, 
one concerning which it is easy to develop controversy. 
Nevertheless, it is in place to suggest that persons beyond 
the age of forty, appointed to principalships, unless they 
have had more or less extended opportunity for close contact 
with the entire range of elementary school work, or unless, 
they are endowed with conspicuous merit, are not likely to 
render that quality of service which the welfare of teachers 
and pupils demands. Only the exceptional individual could 

vacancies in the ranks of teachers from those trained in its own schools. 
The frequent introduction of teachers with diverse training and diverse 
experience is ever necessary to healthy growth and vigorous vitality." — 
Thirteenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, page 
i6i. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 41 

TABLE VI 

Showing the Age of Elementary School Principals at the Time of 
Appointment: Principals Appointed during 1908-1909, 1909-1910, 
1910-1911, 1911-1912 (Feb. 1)1 



Age at 


Number 


Number 


Appointment 


of Men 


of Women 


26 


I 





27 








28 


I 





29 








30 


2 





31 


I 





32 


3 


I 


33 


I 





34 


6 


2 


35 


3 


z 


36 


4 


I 


37 


2 


I 


38 


3 


3 


39 








40 


6 


3 


41 


I 


X 


42 


I 


I 


43 





2 


44 





4 


45 


I 


4 


46 


I 


4 


47 


I 


2 


48 





2 


49 





2 


5° 








SI 








52 





2 


No Record 


S 


s 


Total, 


43 


41 


Median Age, 36 


44 



* The by-laws of the Board of Education (sec. 66, sub. 2) provide 
for age limits for licenses as elementary school principals : men, 25 to 
45 years of age ; women, 25 to 40. However, " In the case of applicants 
who have been ten years in the supervising or teaching force of the 
public schools of the City of New York, the maximum age for hcenses 



42 City School Supervision 

serve as class teacher or departmental head for a consider- 
able number of years, and develop or retain those charac- 
teristics essential to the principalship. Teachers at forty- 
five may, as is frequently alleged, be rich in altruistic mo- 
tives and social influence. But those powers and habits of 
mind that underlie the fruitful supervisory direction of 
schools are likely to be lacking, unless they have been con- 
sciously cultivated. 

POWERS AND DUTIES OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 

The Revised Charter does not, naturally and properly, 
specify the details of the organization and control of the 
several classes of schools constituting the public school sys- 
tem. However, it is not without significance that the only 
duty and responsibility of moment prescribed by the charter 
for principals emphasizes the supervisory functions of this 
office.^ 

Principals are, under the by-laws of the Board of Educa- 
tion, " the responsible administrative heads of their respec- 
tive schools." Thie chief duties and functions of principals, 
as enumerated by these by-laws, are as follows : 

a. To instruct heads of departments and teachers in all 
matters pertaining to discipline and teaching. (Sec. 43-1.) 

b. To carry out the by-laws, rules, regulations, and reso- 
lutions of the Board of Education; and the instructions 
of the City Superintendent of Schools, and the Board of 
Superintendents. (Sec. 43-1.) 

c. To establish standards of teaching for their schools 
through the organization of the work of teachers, through 

as director of a special branch and as principal of an elementary school 
shall be, for a man, 55 years, and for a woman, 50 years, and for li- 
censes as assistant to principal (women only), 50 years." 

^ " Subject to regulations prescribed by the Board of Superintendents, 
and under the supervision of the district superintendent in charge, the 
principal of each school shall direct the methods of teaching in all 
classes under his charge." — Revised Charter, sec. 1086. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 43 

inspection and examination of class work, through model 
lessons in the presence of teachers, and through conferences 
with teachers, (Sec. 43-2.) 

d. To give special attention to newly appointed, substi- 
tute, and unsuccessful teachers ; and to keep a record of 
assistance rendered to such teachers. (Sec. 43-3.) 

e. To rate teachers according to their efficiency. (Sec. 

43-3-) 

f. To report upon the work of teachers holding tempo- 
rary licenses. (Sec. 39-14 d.) 

g. To submit reports to the City Superintendent of 
Schools, and to the district superintendent. (Sec. 43-4.) 

h. To prepare requisitions for text-books and apparatus. 
(Sec. 43-5; sec. 32-11.) 

i. To keep records of class inspections and examinations, 
and to require heads of departments to keep similar records. 
(Sec. 43-6.) 

j. To direct the work of heads of departments. (Sec. 

43-7-) 

k. To exercise care that no injury is done to school prop- 
erty, and to report injuries and repairs needed. (Sec. 

43-8.) 

1. To supervise the janitor as to operating and protect- 
ing the heating and ventilating apparatus ; and to instruct 
teachers in the regulation of the temperature of class rooms. 
(Sec. 43-9.) 

m. To keep record of absence and lateness of members 
of the supervising and teaching force. (Sec. 43-11.) 

n. To exercise pupils and teachers in rapid dismissal. 
(Sec. 43-13) 

o. To engage in no other occupations that will interfere 
with duties ; to give no private lessons for pay in any pub- 
lic school. (Sec. 43-14.) 

p. To prepare pay-rolls (Sec. 58-2) accompanied by spe- 
cial report of school sessions. (Sec. 43-16.) 

q. To require pupils of all grades, except those of the 
first two years, to devote one half-hour each day to study in 



44 City School Supervision 

the class room under the direction of the class teachers. 
(Sec. 43-17.) 

r. To report to the district superintendent inefficient and 
incompetent teachers. (Sec. 43-18.) 

s. To report to the City Superintendent teachers absent 
without leave of absence properly granted. (Sec. 43-18.) 

t. To report to the district superintendent boys to whom 
employment certificates have been issued. (Sec. 43-20.) 

u. To report weekly to the district superintendent names 
of pupils leaving school for the purpose of engaging in any 
emplo5Ament. (Sec. 54-5.) 

v. To provide the district superintendent, when the school 
is visited for examination, with a written statement of facts. 
(Sec. 41-14.) 

w. To oversee the ratings of pupils. (Sec. 49-4.) 

X. To keep records of pupils. (Sec. 55-16.) 

While the literal expression of the by-laws makes the 
principal " the responsible administrative head " of his 
school, the spirit of the by-laws places upon him a large 
supervisory responsibility. He is, under the obligations of 
the above prescriptions, especially items a, c, d, e, f, i, r, v, 
and w, the potential supervisory head of his school. In 
fact, however, he has no real supervisory independence or 
initiation. Practically all of the constructive features of his 
work are under the immediate control of the Board of 
Superintendents, the associate superintendent, or the dis- 
trict superintendent. In the last analysis, the ineffectiveness 
of the elementary schools of the city may be measured by 
the extent to which the principals fail to perform, or are 
prevented from performing, those activities that are the 
rightful functions of their offices. Professor McMurry ^ 
has pointed out some of the hindrances to the proper per- 
formance of the supervisory duties of the elementary 
school principal. I express entire agreement with the con- 

* See Elementary School Standards, pp. 185-21 1. 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 45 

elusions he has presented, especially with regard to the 
detrimental influence of the number of clerical and ad- 
ministrative duties demanded of the principals, consuming, 
as these duties do, the major amount of time and energy. 

In addition, I would emphasize the importance of the 
waste that now takes place in elementary schools through 
the system of appointing so-called additional teachers for 
clerical service — persons neither trained nor adapted to 
render efficient and economical service of the sort required ; 
and also the waste that takes place from the number and 
character of the various monthly, annual, and special sta- 
tistical reports that must be submitted by principals. •'• 

* It has not been possible to make a careful and detailed examina- 
tion of all of these reports, with reference to their form and final util- 
ity. I have, however, gone over practically all of the statistical reports 
that are now prepared by elementary and high school principals. On 
the basis of this, and the information given me by principals, I feel 
justified in saying that there is not only a large opportunity for the 
simplification of the statistical reports, but also a necessity of finding 
out the actual cost of the statistical reporting. Apparently the authori- 
ties of the Department of Education have permitted this feature of the 
work of the schools to grow without special reference to the ends to 
be served. 

The following typical statements, (a) by a principal of an elemen- 
tary school, and (b) by a principal of a high school, represent fairly 
the general attitude of principals toward this feature of their work : 

(a) 

" It would be an excellent thing, as you suggest, to have the clerks 
selected from a list of persons specially trained and qualified for clerical 
work instead of from the teacher's list. Such persons should have re- 
ceived special training for the particular work of a clerk, and when in 
service their work should be inspected by a specialist representing the 
school authorities. It is most important to secure uniformity in the 
matter of methods of keeping records and making out reports. 

"There should be a central office of statistics; and information de- 
sired by building department, supply department, superintendents, or 
others should be secured from this bureau. The school clerks are kept 
busy in making out different reports for different authorities, and there 
is always just enough difference in each request to require the work 
to be done over. 

" All statistics to be called for should be planned in advance, so that 



46 City School Supervision 

From the evidence gathered during my own personal 
inspections and visitation of schools, supplemented by the 

records should be made in accordance with that aim, and properly pre- 
pared cards or other blanks should be furnished at the beginning of the 
recording. 

" When new records, or reports, or even separate items, are required, 
there should be unification of the entire system. Today too many anti- 
quated records are kept. 

" Records and reports should be arranged in a proper series, day, 
week, year, etc., so that each higher report would be a summary of the 
lower. 

" Special statistical investigation of all the schools never should be 
made without experimenting in several schools, so that complete direc- 
tions can be supplied to the city and uniformity secured." 

(b) 

" Monthly Report to the Superintendent. — More labor and useless 
matter than in any monthly report in any other school system in the 
country. 

"Annual Report to the Superintendent. — Too complex; too insistent 
upon data not kept in the school. 

"Report of Teachers Absent Two Weeks or More. — Practically a 
worthless report, because no action is taken on it. 

"Application to Visit Schools. — A fine example of unnecessary com- 
plexity and waste of time. 

"Report of School Visits. — Mostly a matter of form. No instances 
known of any use being made of the reports. . . . 

"Request for Permission to Invite Address. — This I gain from 
principals' meetings is a cause of much useless irritation. 

"Inventory of School Supplies. — This is required by the charter of 
the city. It is a maximum of work with a minimum of profit. 

" Record of Telephone Messages Sent. — This is a waste of time. 
The telephones cannot be locked up. There is no means of compelling 
the persons using the telephones to record the messages. 

" Program Reports. — This is the program of daily recitations copied 
and sent to the district superintendent. This means a cost of from ten 
to sixty dollars' working time of teachers or substitutes for each 
school. . . . 

"Report to Permanent Census Board. — The amount of expense 
connected with this work, for the benefit of the Permanent Census 
Board, and not appearing in the Budget of expenses because taken from 
the expense account of the various schools, is several hundred dollars 
a year for each high school. 

"Records of Regents' Examinations. — The amount of clerical work, 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 47 

findings of Professor McMurry, there would seem to be 
two general classes of elementary school principals: (a) 
those who are competent to act as supervisors and make a 
conscious effort to subordinate the routine administrative 
tasks, and (b) those who are content to confine their ac- 
tivities to the mechanics of school operation and control. 
Before the elementary schools of the city are individually 
properly supervised, there must be a considerable increase 
in the number of the first group, and the chief educational 
authorities must find a way of placing a premium on super- 
visory capacity by providing freedom of action to every 
principal in accordance with his competency. That super- 
vision is best which controls and is controlled least. 

RATED EFFICIENCY OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 

At the end of each school year the several district super- 
intendents submit to the City Superintendent of Schools 
ratings of the efficiency of principals, and other persons in 
charge of independent schools in their respective districts; 
and also ratings of similar character relative to assistants 
to principals.^ In rating principals the following gradu- 
ated scale is employed: Meritorious: H (highest grade), 
G, F. Non-Meritorious: E (inferior); D (deficient). To 
each principal is given a so-called " general rating." This 
general rating, expressed by the letters H, G, F, etc., is 
amplified by a " detailed rating." This detailed rating con- 
sists of thirteen points, as follows : 

(i) Effect of examinations and inspections. 

(2) Character and effect of conferences with teachers. 

reduplication, fuss and fiddle over these semiannual wastes requires a 
personal investigation by some of your experts. . . . 

"Record of Graduation Attainments. — Required of all the elemen- 
tary school principals. They submit them to the district superintendent. 
I hear the most pronounced complaints as to the uselessness of this 
work." 

^ See p. 127 ff., for the forms upon which these ratings are submitted. 



48 City School Supervision 

(3) Guidance and assistance of weak teachers. 

(4) Judgment in assigning teachers to classes, 

(5) Discrimination in ratings of teachers. 

(6) Character of record kept (including statistics). 

(7) Interpretation of course of study and selection of 

text-books. 

(8) Grading and promotion of pupils. 

(9) Influence on school discipline, and supervision of 

truancy. 

(10) Supervision of janitor's work. 

(11) Supervision of recesses, games, athletics, etc. 

(12) Cooperation with other principals using school 

premises. 

(13) Manners, conversation, conduct. 

The reliability and usefulness of the scheme now em- 
ployed for determining fit and meritorious service of mem- 
bers of the instructional staff are discussed elsewhere.^ The 
intention here is to direct attention to certain features of this 
rating system bearing upon the quality of service of prin- 
cipals. The following table (VII) exhibits the " General 
Ratings "of elementary school principals by district super- 
intendents, in June, 1911.^ 

It may be that, during the year 1910-1911, there was but 
one inferior principal in the elementary schools of the city; 
that forty only (8.7 per cent) of the four hundred sixty- 
four principals were non-meritorious; that sixty per cent 
of the principals rendered service of the highest grade; 
that ninety-one per cent of the principals possessed meritori- 
ous competency. If these ratings represent the true super- 
visory values of the staff of elementary school principals, 
there are reasons for concluding that these values have not 
been fully and wisely capitalised for the progressive devel- 

^ See Chapter IX. Methods and Standards for Determining Teach- 
ing Efficiency, p. 116 ff. 

* The exhibition of this table is typical. Distribution and study of 
the general ratings of other years reveal the same degree of variation 
and the same absence of standards. 



The ScJiool as the Unit for Supervision 49 

TABLE VII 

General Ratings of Elementary School Principals by District Super- 
intendents, June, 1911 



District 
Superin- 
tendents 


Number 
of Prin- 
cipals 


Ratings 


Not 
Rated 


Total 


Per Cent 

Rated 

H 


H 


G 


F 


E 


D 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 



P 

Q 

R 
S 
T 
U 
V 

w 


IS 
18 

23 
23 
19 

20 

19 
20 

37 
27 
24 
38 
30 
20 

14 
14 
IS 
14 
13 
16 

13 
16 
16 


13 
8 

S 
22 

7 
12 

17 
16 

30 

IS 

2 

14 

s 

II 
10 

14 

12 

7 

7 

13 

7 

IS 

II 


2 

10 

10 

I 

8 

8 

2 

4 

7 

II 

19 

13 

19 

7 

3 

I 
6 
3 
3 
6 
1 
2 


8 
4 

2 

II 

6 



2 
I 
3 

3 


I 




I 

I 

I 
1 


IS 
18 

23 
23 
19 
20 

19 
20 

37 
27 
24 
38 

30 
20 

14 
14 
IS 
14 
13 
16 

13 
16 
16 


86 

44 
22 

9S 
37 
60 
90 
80 
81 
56 
8 
37 
17 
SS 
71 
100 
80 
50 
54 
81 

S4 
94 
69 


Totals . 


464 


273 


146 


40 


I 




4 


464 




Per Cent 




S9-3 


31-7 


8.7 


.2 




•9 







opment of the elementary schools, nor for the greatest bene- 
fit of the children attending these schools. A school system 
that possesses such a very large proportion of superior prin- 
cipals should not lack means for the accomplishment of 
results of the highest order. Either an inflated value has 



50 City School Supervision 

been given to the performance of principals, or the school 
organization has been such as to prevent the largest utiliza- 
tion of the capacity of these principals. 

The internal evidence of Table VII justifies the doubt as 
to the real worth of these annual principals' ratings as 
measures of the quality of service. The wide variations 
between the different supervisory districts can be accounted 
for only upon the assumption of a wide variability of stand- 
ard. The schools of certain districts, according to the 
data presented in the table, appear to be favored far above 
the schools of other districts. District Superintendent P, 
for instance, had in his two districts fourteen principals, all 
of the highest grade. All but one of the twenty-three prin- 
cipals in the district supervised by District Superintend- 
ent D were regarded as of " H " grade. District Superin- 
tendent V was, likewise, fortunate in having principals of 
the highest rank. District Superintendents K, M, and C, 
for example, would be justified in being somewhat envious 
of their associates, P, D, and V, for they were obliged to 
carry on their schools with the assistance of eight, seven- 
teen, and twenty-two per cent, respectively, of high-grade 
principals. Further detailed comparisons of this sort are 
unnecessary. 

Testimony from other sources than Table VII — the ac- 
tual visitation and inspection of schools, and a critical ex- 
amination of the basis upon which the several district 
superintendents formulate the ratings of principals — 
clearly indicates that the work of the principals of elemen- 
tary schools is not subjected to that cautious, objective ex- 
amination that should constitute the foundation of the rat- 
ings, if the ratings are worth making at all. Vague gen- 
eral impressions should not be, as they undoubtedly are, the 
chief elements of these ratings. 

While recognizing clearly that, in the present state of edu- 
cational organization and practise, it is extremely difficult 
to establish definite, concrete standards by which the service 
of principals may be evaluated, and while recognizing, with 



The School as the Unit for Supervision 51 

equal clearness, that it is impossible to eliminate the influ- 
ence of the intangible factor of the personal equation, yet 
one must conclude that the majority of the district super- 
intendents have regarded the important inspectorial function 
of rating principals as merely a formal procedure. A com- 
parison of the reports of principals' ratings submitted by 
certain district superintendents during several years shows 
that the ratings of one year are merely copied from the 
report of the preceding year. 

Appointment to a principalship means permanency of 
tenure. The temporary license of the principal is practically 
certain to be made peiTnanent after three years of service.-^ 
Increase of salary, according to the schedule, is practically 
automatic. The standards for " fit and meritorious ser- 
vice " are too uncertain and variable to guarantee the selec- 
tion, retention, and reward of those principals most fit and 
meritorious, or to prevent the establishment of a low level 
of service that may be easily reached by those of mediocre 
ability. 

GENERAL SUMMARY 

It appears, from the more important of the foregoing 
considerations, that : 

(a) The number of supervisors (principals, etc.) pro- 
vided for elementary schools is entirely adequate for effec- 
tive supervision. 

(b) The salary schedules are such as to attract men and 
women of competence. 

(c) The tendency is to appoint men and women whose 
education, training, and experience have been too exclu- 
sively within the city. 

(d) The position of the principal is primarily adminis- 
trative, rather than supervisory. 

(e) The system of rating the efficiency of principals 
is not such as to distinguish the competent from the 
incompetent. 

* See Table XIII, p. 119. 



CHAPTER V 
THE DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS 

ORGANIZATION, POWERS, AND DUTIES 

BY the provisions of the Revised Charter of 1901 (Sec. 
1079), the four borough superintendents, by virtue of 
their office, became associate city superintendents ; and four 
of the associate borough superintendents were designated 
as associate city superintendents. The remaining associate 
borough superintendents, twenty-six in number, were given 
the rank of district superintendents. The term of office 
was fixed at six years. The charter provided (Sec. 1078) 
that the City Superintendent should assign the district 
superintendents, subject to the by-laws of the Board of 
Education (Sec. 41), " such duties as, in his judgment, will 
be conducive to the welfare of the public schools of the 
City of New York." The charter further provided that 
twenty-three of the district superintendents should be as- 
signed by the City Superintendent to the work of super- 
vision in the local school board districts (forty-six) in such 
manner that one district superintendent should be assigned 
to each two of the districts. The assignments were to be 
made for one year; at the end of which period the City 
Superintendent had power " to change such assignments 
as he may deem best for the interests of the school sys- 
tem. . . ." The remaining three district superintendents 
were to be assigned " to such other professional duties as the 
welfare of the school system may require." During the year 
1910-1911 these three district superintendents were as- 
signed as follows: One to vacation schools, playgrounds, 

52 



The District Superintendents 53 

and evening recreation centers; one to high schools, and 
one to evening schools. 

The chief powers and duties of district superintendents, 
as enumerated by the by-laws of the Board of Education, 
are as follows : 

a. To attend meetings of local school boards, and to make 
reports to these boards. (Sec. 41-4, 18.) 

b. To keep records of the district. (Sec. 41-3.) 

c. To make recommendations to the City Superintendent 
as to the proper accommodation for all children of school 
age in their districts. (Sec. 41-5.) 

d. To report on all matters connected with the schools, 
and in such form as the City Superintendent may require. 
(Sec. 39-7; sec. 41-6, 20.) 

e. To encourage, advise, and assist pupils, teachers, and 
principals for the securing and maintenance of a high stand- 
ard of education. (Sec. 41-8.) 

f. To hold conferences of teachers and principals. (Sec. 

4I-9-) 

g. To inspect, examine, and report upon the condition of 
schools, and the work of pupils, teachers, and principals. 
(Sec. 41-10, II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.) 

h. To rate principals and teachers at least once each year. 
(Sec. 39-14- ) 

i. To suspend teachers for gross misconduct, or insubor- 
dination, neglect of duty, or general inefficiency. (Sec. 
41-19.) 

j. To enforce the compulsory education law, under the 
direction of the City Superintendent of Schools. (Sec. 41- 

k. To assign teachers of special branches in the schools 
of their districts. (Sec. 41-22.) 

1. To approve, disapprove, or modify requisitions of prin- 
cipals for supplies. Sec. 43-5; sec. 32-11.) (High 
schools, Sec. 52-17, 20.) 

m. To investigate complaints. (Sec. 41-13.) 



54 City School Supervision 

The district superintendency, according to the general 
theory of the plan of organization/ was to be, as it properly 
should be, a position of great supervisory importance. 
These officers were to constitute the direct connecting links 
between the City Superintendent and the Board of Super- 
intendents, and the principals, teachers, pupils, and people 
of the community. Through them was to come a unifica- 
tion and elevation of educational standards. The evidence 
which has been collected and considered leads to the general 
conclusion that, in practise, the soundness of the theory for 
the city as a whole has not been fully demonstrated. The 
more important of the bases for this conclusion will be 
briefly presented. 

SIZE OF SUPERVISORY DISTRICTS 

At no point in the charter is the spirit of compromise 
more evident than in the provisions relating to the number 
and powers of the district superintendents. All persons oc- 
cupying superintendents' positions under the former char- 
ter were continued in office, either as associate or district 
superintendents. The number of district superintendents 
(twenty-six) was one of the accidents of the compromise. 

* " The districting of the schools was a necessary preliminary to the 
appointment by the borough presidents of the forty-six local school 
boards. These boards consist each of five members, appointed by the 
borough presidents ; one member of the Board of Education, as- 
signed by the President of the Board of Education; and a Dis- 
trict Superintendent, who by virtue of his office becomes the edu- 
cational adviser of the local boards within his territory. The creation 
of these local school boards, and the manner in which they have dis- 
charged their functions, have brought the administration of the schools 
very much closer to the people. In the first place, the local school 
board, which represents the people, has direct representation in the 
Board of Education through the member of that body who is, ex officio, 
a member of the local school board. In the second place, through the 
District Superintendent, the local board and the people secure the pres- 
entation of their views to the Board of Superintendents." (Fifth An- 
nual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, pp. 12-13.) 



The District Superintendents 55 

The vested status of individuals, rather than the obvious 
supervisory needs of the schools, appears to have received 
the first attention of the charter makers. There is no hint 
in any of the official reports of the school system that the 
number of district superintendents provided for in 1902 was 
in excess of the need. On the contrary, the duties and re- 
sponsibilities with which they were charged were regarded 
as near the maximum assignment. These duties and respon- 
sibilities have greatly increased during the past ten years. 
At the same time, the rapid growth of the school system has 
multiplied the administrative and supervisory problems of 
the schools. The following table (VIII) shows the number 
of school organizations, the number of class rooms, and the 
register of pupils on September 30, 191 1, for each of the 
supervisory districts. 

A detailed examination of Table VIII gives weight to the 
argument that it is futile to expect a district superintendent 
to be " absolutely responsible for the scholastic welfare of 
each school in his territory," when that territory includes 
five hundred or more class rooms, and twenty-five thousand 
or more pupils, — which is the case in twenty out of twenty- 
three of the supervisory districts. Granting a moderate 
supervisory skill on the part of principals, assistants to prin- 
cipals, and heads of departments — and more than this can- 
not be granted — and assuming a high degree of super- 
visory power on the part of the district superintendents, and 
their freedom to give their whole time to the " actual super- 
vision of schools," the responsibility placed upon them is 
beyond complete and satisfactory fulfilment.^ When one 
recalls the constant shifting of teachers and pupils, the situ- 
ation appears even more difficult. A reasonable way out 
would seem to be to transfer to the principal many of 
the items of administration and supervision now belonging 

* Nevertheless, at a conference of district superintendents, held at 
the request of the Committee on School Inquiry on April 9, 1912, not 
one of the twenty superintendents assented to the proposition that the 
supervisory districts were too large. 



S6 



City School Supervision 



TABLE VIII 

Data for the Several Supervisory Districts (Elementary Schools) 



Divisions 


Division 
Supts. 


District 
Supts. 


Dis- 
tricts 


Number of 
School Or- 
ganizations 


Number 
of Class 
Rooms 


Register 

Sept. 30, 

1911 


I . . . 


Strauben- 
miiller 


Richman 
Jenkins 
Davis 
Wade 


2-3 
4-5 
6-7 
1-9 


14 
14 
15 

21 


581 
632 
737 
638 


22,195 
27,236 

31,533 
24,682 




Total. . 


8 


64 


2,588 


105,646 


II . . . 


Shallow 


Granger 
Franklin 
Jameson 


8-12 

13-15 
16-17 


14 
16 
16 


553 
562 
724 


21,264 
22,013 
32,974 




Total. . 


6 


46 


1,839 


76,251 


in . . 


O'Brien 


O'Shea 
Schaufl&er 


lO-II 

14-18 


13 
13 


403 

450 


15,176 
17,469 




Total . . 


4 


26 


853 


32,645 


IV . . . 


Edson 


Elgas 
Lee 
Dwyer 
Taylor 


19-22 
20-21 
23-24 
25-26 


17 
14 
19 

27 


647 
638 

849 
872 


28,174 
27,581 
37,168 
38,625 




Total. . 


8 


'/7 


3,006 


131,548 


V . . . 


Meleney 


Griffen 
McCabe 
Strachan 
Veit 


27-29 
31-34 
33-35 
32-36 


24 
20 
20 
19 


761 
697 
787 
735 


30,804 
29,574 
33,290 
31,571 




Total. . 


8 


83 


2,980 


124,239 


VI . . . 


Walsh 


Campbell 

EdsaU 

Lyon 


28-30 
37-38 
39-40 


19 

37 
28 


575 
1,003 
1,120 


25,541 
43,746 
51,762 




Total. . 


6 


84 


2,698 


121,049 


VII . . 


Haaren 


Stewart 

Shimer 

Ettinger 


41-42 
43-44 
45-46 


33 
53 
34 


633 
749 
389 


24,444 
28,277 
13,744 




Total . . 


6 


120 


1,771 


66,465 


Grand Tol 


,als 


46 


500 


15,735 


658,843 





The District Superintendents 57 

exclusively to the district superintendent or divided between 
the principal and the superintendent. This proposal as- 
sumes, however, the competency and reliability of the 
principal. In any event, the need is not so much more 
supervision of teachers and schools by district superintend- 
ents, but better supervision by principals. 



SELECTION AND QUALIFICATIONS OF DISTRICT 
SUPERINTENDENTS 

The staff of district superintendents is noticeably inert. 
This condition is due in part to the character of the staff 
itself, and in part to the circumstances of the hierarchic or- 
ganization of the system of school control. 

More than half of the district superintendents (during 
191 1 ) belong to the group automatically given supervisory 
status under the terms of the Revised Charter. It is freely 
admitted by those who have had long experience in the 
schools now comprising the New York public school system 
that under the old borough organizations professional quali- 
fications and competency were not always the sole tests for 
the selection of superintendents. And while a slow process 
of selection and survival has eliminated most of those who 
succeeded to a district superintendency by the right of in- 
heritance alone, the existing standard followed is too low. 

As far as can be ascertained from the official records, all 
the district superintendents, except two or three, are prod- 
ucts of New York education, training, and experience. If 
inbreeding is detrimental to the teaching force, as is ad- 
mitted by the City Superintendent in his Thirteenth Annual 
Report (p. 161) ; if the inbreeding process influencing the 
selection of principals produces a neutral and non-progres- 
sive character in the supervision of elementary schools, as 
has been contended in this section of the report; then the 
inbreeding as it reaches the district superintendency is not a 
negligible factor of weakness. The opinion has been freely 
expressed by principals and district and associate super- 



58 City School Supervision 

intendents that it is impossible to secure through the Board 
of Education the selection of district superintendents from 
without the school system; that to those promoted from 
within the system, other standards than those of fitness and 
of competency are applied in approving the nominations of 
the Board of Superintendents. This is not to say that en- 
couragement and opportunity for the promotion of those 
of power and performance within the school system should 
not be given in the fullest measure. At the same time, any 
plan for the selection of those who are to be the construc- 
tive leaders in the public schools, that is founded exclusively 
upon the policy of New York schools for New York people, 
establishes an arbitrary and unfortunate limitation to educa- 
tional progress. 

The Board of Superintendents itself does not appear to 
have any well-established standards of qualifications for 
nomination of district superintendents, other than the for- 
mal standards of education and experience prescribed in 
the charter and the by-laws. In other words, if the recently 
erected standard of " superior merit " is valid in its applica- 
tion to high and training-school teachers, it is even more 
valid with reference to the staff of district superintendents 
as a condition for appointment and retention. Parentheti- 
cally, it might be suggested that not only new blood and 
better blood but also some proportion of younger blood 
should be considered among the factors that make for move- 
ment and progress. 

More important than any of the foregoing considerations 
is that of the freedom, initiative, and responsibility of the 
district superintendents. As supervisory officers, the district 
superintendents are, by specification and implication of char- 
ter and by-laws, deputies of the City Superintendent of 
Schools. Their position is, however, an anomalous one. 
Responsible to a high degree for the general administration 
and effective supervision of the schools within their dis- 
tricts, they have, as a body, but slight influence upon the 
determination of those general policies that finally fix the 



llie District Superintendents 59 

quality and quantity of educational performance.^ As at 
present constituted, the office of district superintendent can- 
not be an altogether satisfactory position for the energetic, 
progressive, and constructive individual, whose primary 
interests are in education and its adaptation to the needs of 
children. 



SUPERVISORY ACTIVITIES OF DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS ^ 

Each district superintendent is required to submit monthly 
a written report of his work.^ An examination of a con- 
siderable number of these reports recently submitted indi- 
cates that they are made out in a most formal manner, and 
consequently could not be utilized as exhibiting the kind 
and amount of the supervisory performances of the dis- 
trict superintendents. 

On September 26, 191 1, the following questions were sub- 
mitted to each of the district superintendents: 

I. a. What studies or reports have you been asked, offi- 
cially, to submit to the Board of Superintendents 
or to the Board of Education, during the last 
five years, on the scope and method of your work 
as a district superintendent? 
b. What studies or reports of this kind have you made 
voluntarily ? 

* An examination of the prescribed duties of district superintend- 
ents, as well as a study of the procedure under which their activities are 
carried on, justifies this statement. The relation of the district super- 
intendent to the Board of Superintendents is that of a suppliant rather 
than that of an adviser. A review of the minutes of the Board of 
Superintendents for several years past, conferences with members of 
the Board, and attendance upon a regular meeting of this Board, have 
offered abundant evidence upon this point. 

* See Chapter IX, p. Ii6, of this report for certain observations of 
the work of district superintendents in passing upon the merit of 
teachers for renewal of license and approval of service under salary 
schedules. 

' See Appendix C, p. 195, for the form of this report. 



6o City School Supervision 

2. a. What use was made of such required or voluntary 

studies or reports? 
b. Are any such studies or reports on file ? 

3. a. How often in a term, or in a year, do you assemble 

your subordinates, collectively or in groups, for 
conferences on the educational problems involved 
in their work, as well as on routine details ? 
b. Are any programs of such conferences on file? 

4. a. What phase of your work consumes most of your 

time — constructive educational activities, in- 
cluding supervision, or administrative routine? 

b. About what proportion of your time is devoted to 

the latter? 

c. What proportion, if any, of routine details could 

be delegated to subordinates? 

5. a. Do your subordinates study the significance of the 

reports which they make to their superiors? 
b. Are these reports satisfactory as to accuracy and 
completeness ? 

6. What means do you employ to influence public 

educational opinion in your community? 

The written replies submitted by twenty-one of the dis- 
trict superintendents are illuminating, not only as to the 
activities of these officers, but also as to the conceptions held 
concerning the functions of their office. 

Of the replies to Question i, not more than four indi- 
cated an understanding of what was meant by " the scope 
and method of your work as a district superintendent." 
With the exceptions noted, the replies concerned themselves 
with a mere mention or an enumeration and description of 
regular routine and statistical reports. On the basis of this 
testimony it must be concluded that neither the Board of 
Superintendents nor the Board of Education has required 
or stimulated the district superintendents to appraise and 
criticize the range, the methods, and the results of their own 
work. A very few (5) of the superintendents had pre- 



The District Superintendents 6i 

pared and submitted, on their own initiative, reports and 
recommendations affecting in a fundamental way their su- 
pervisory activities. 

The rephes to Question 2 reflected only a very small de- 
gree of effective cooperation between the district superin- 
tendents and the City Superintendent, or the Board of 
Superintendents. Frequently it was noted that the reports 
or recommendations were " considered " by the City Super- 
intendent or the Board of Superintendents. In a few in- 
stances reports had been utilized and recommendations 
adopted. More frequently, however, the comment was 
made that it was not known what became of the reports and 
recommendations. 

Question 3 was submitted for the purpose of discovering 
the extent and the character of the endeavor of district 
superintendents to create a positive attitude on the part of 
teachers and principals toward the problems of modern edu- 
cation. The general practise seems to be that meetings of 
principals are held approximately once each month; in 
some districts oftener. In a few instances only are the 
whole number of teachers gathered together — once or 
twice each year. Frequent meetings of special groups of 
teachers are held for special purposes. The striking feature 
of the exhibit produced by these answers is the absence of 
any carefully projected and consecutive programs of action. 
Practically all of the meetings — of principals as well as of 
teachers — are given over to the publication of administra- 
tive announcements, or the presentation of matters of local 
or transitory importance. The conception of utilizing these 
meetings as a means for the exercise of educational leader- 
ship does not seem to have developed. 

The replies to Question 4 emphasize the fact that very few 
of the district superintendents are able to make any very 
clear distinction between administrative routine and super- 
vision. While the great majority of replies state that the 
most of the time goes to constructive and supervisory ac- 
tivities, it is to be noted that several of the district super- 



62 City School Supervision 

intendents, who are generally recognized as belonging to the 
group of the most competent, say frankly that their major 
energies are consumed by clerical labor and ofhce routine. 
It was generally admitted that the present method of admin- 
istering the compulsory education law involved the expendi- 
ture of too much time and energy. The estimates of the 
time consumed by the non-supervisory duties vary from ten 
to seventy-five per cent. One half of the superintendents 
fix the limit at one third. If the staff of district superin- 
tendents, as a whole, is inert educationally, this may be ex- 
plained in large part by the fact that the established policy 
of administrative and supervisory control of the school 
system does not recognize that performance feeds upon 
responsibility. The creation of a so-called " Supervisory 
Council " would open new avenues of usefulness and serv- 
ice for the district superintendents.^ 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

It appears, from the more important of the foregoing 
considerations of the supervisory position and function of 
the district superintendent, that: 

(a) While the general theory of the plan of the district 
superintendent in the supervisory organization is a sound 
one, this theory is not, as to its essential elements, carried 
out in practise. 

(b) The supervisory districts are too large to permit the 
district superintendents to fulfil properly their responsibil- 
ities as supervisors. Many of these responsibilities should 
be transferred to the principals of schools. 

(c) The existing method of selecting district superin- 
tendents too narrowly confines choice to those whose edu- 
cation, training, and experience have been entirely within 
the city. 

(d) The absence of a definite and high standard of quali- 

* See p. 171. 



The District Superintendents 63 

fication for selection and retention of district superintend- 
ents has limited the supervisory usefulness of these officers. 
(e) The relation between the Board of Superintendents 
and the district superintendents is such as to restrict unnec- 
essarily the freedom, initiative, and responsibility of the 
latter with respect to matters of fundamental educational 
importance. Provision should be made for the larger par- 
ticipation of the district superintendents in the making of 
educational policies. 



CHAPTER VI 

DIRECTORS AND ASSISTANT DIRECTORS OF 
SPECIAL BRANCHES 1 

POSITION IN THE SUPERVISORY ORGANIZATION 

THE charter (Sec. 1079) authorizes the Board of Edu- 
cation, upon the nomination of the Board of Superin- 
tendents, to appoint such directors of special branches as it 
deems necessary. It is also provided that such directors 
shall be under the supervision and direction of the City- 
Superintendent; and (Sec. 1085) that they shall act as ad- 
visers to the Board of Superintendents, to district superin- 
tendents, and to principals with regard to the special 
branches they supervise; and, further (Sec. 1085), that 
they shall examine the work in their several branches, re- 
port upon the same, and instruct special teachers and class 
teachers in the teaching of their several subjects. The 
Board of Superintendents, with the advice of the directors 
of the respective special branches, assigns to the several 
school districts such teachers of drawing, music, physical 
culture, manual training, cooking, sewing, and other special 
branches. The special teachers are assigned by the district 
superintendents to their duties in the schools. 

The by-laws of the Board of Education emphasize the 
supervisory functions of directors, assistant directors, and 
teachers of special branches : 

* While not, strictly speaking, a special branch, the kindergarten is 
included here. From the standpoint of supervisory policy, the kinder- 
garten has been regarded as similar to the special branches. 

64 



Directors and Assistant Directors 65 

. 3. " Directors of special branches shall act as advisers to 
the Board of Superintendents, to the district superintend- 
ents, and to the principals, with regard to all matters re- 
lating to the special branches they supervise. Under the 
direction of the City Superintendent, and subject to his 
assignment, directors and assistant directors of special 
branches shall examine the work in their several branches, 
report upon the same, and instruct special teachers and class 
teachers in the teaching of their several branches." (As 
amended December 23, 1903.) 

6. " Subject to the general supervision of the district 
superintendents, and to the immediate supervision of their 
respective directors, the teachers of special branches shall 
visit the classes in the schools to which they are assigned, 
shall inspect their work, give model lessons, and, in coop- 
eration with the principals, shall direct the methods of in- 
struction employed therein." 

7. " It shall be the duty of all directors and assistant 
directors of special branches to report to the City Super- 
intendent twice in each year upon the general efficiency of 
each of the special teachers under their supervision, or 
oftener, if required." (As amended December 2^, 1903.)^ 

The teachers of special branches are employed to aid the 
regular class teachers, except in the matter of foreign lan- 
guages, cooking, and shop work; in these branches they 
teach the pupils directly. Naturally, the kindergartens be- 
long to this same general group. 



NUMBER AND INCREASE 

The following tables summarize the data for the past ten 
years relative to the number and kind of directors, assistant 
directors, and teachers of special branches. 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, section 42. 



66 



City School Supervision 



TABLE IX 

Showing Number of Directors and Assistant Directors of Special 
Branches for the Ten Years 1902-1912I 





1902 
1903 


1903 
1904 


1904 
190S 


190S 
1906 


1906 
1907 


1907 
1908 


1908 
1909 


1909 
1910 


1910 
1911 


1911 
1912 


Music: 
Directors 




3 

3 

I 
2 

2 

I 
3 


2 

3 

I 
2 

2 

I 
3 


2 

3 

I 
3 

3 
I 
2 


2 

3 

I 
3 

2 

I 
2 


2 

3 

I 
3 

2 
I 

2 


2 

3 

I 
3 

2 

I 
2 


I 

I 
I 

I 

I 
3 

2 

I 
2 


I 
I 

I 

I 

I 

I 
3 

2 

I 
I 


I 


Assistant Directors . . 
Drawing: 

Director (H. Schools) . 

Director (Ele. Schools) 
Manual Training and 
Drawing: 

Directors 




I 

I 
I 


Assistant Directors . . 
Shop Work (Ele. Sch.): 

Directors 

Physical Training: 

Director 




I 
I 
I 


Assistant Director . . 
Sewing: 
Directors 




3 
2 


Cooking: 
Director 




I 


Kindergarten: 
Director 




I 


Assistant Directors . . 




2 


Total 


16 


IS 


14 


14 


14 


14 


14 


13 


13 


16 



* The change in the number of directors and assistant directors has 
been due, for the most part, to the policy of centralizing and unifji-ing 
the supervision of each of the special branches through a single direc- 
tor, with assistant directors, instead of directors for the different bor- 
oughs. The several classes of inspectors have not been included. 



Directors and Assistant Directors 

TABLE X 



67 



Showing Number of Teachers of Special Branches (Including Kinder- 
gartens) FOR the Years 1902-1911 





1902 
1903 


1903 
1904 


1904 
1905 


1905 
1906 


1906 
1907 


1907 
1908 


1908 
1909 


1909 
1910 


1910 
1911 


Music 

Manual Training a 

Drawing . . . 
Drawing .... 
Physical Training 
Sewing .... 
Cooking .... 
Shop Work . . 
German .... 
French .... 
Penmanship . . 


inc 


1 






49 

SI 

21 
55 
36 
37 
59 
10 
I 


50 
51 

21 

55 
46 
41 
57 
10 
I 


49 
51 

22 
61 

48 
44 
60 

8 

I 


51 

51 

30 
59 

80 

59 

58 

7 

I 


5° 
SI 

28 
62 
95 
71 
55 
6 
I 


5^ 

53 
31 
62 

"5 

68 

SO 

6 

I 


53 

49 
33 
62 

132 

81 

48 

6 


53 

'48 
32 
60 

135 
100 

45 
6 


Total 

Per cent Increase . . 


305 
4.09 


319 
4-59 


332 
3-91 


344 
3-61 


396 

15.12 


419 

5.81 


437 
4-3 


464 
6.18 


479 
3-23 


Per cent Increase . . 


299 
32.30 


419 
40.14 


460 
9.78 


532 
15-65 


570 
7.14 


660 
15-79 


743 
12.58 


786 
S-79 


823 
4.71 


Total Average Attend- 
ance (thousands) . 

Per cent Increase over 
Previous Year . . 


440 
4.6 


467 
6.1 


487 
4.38 


506 
3-86 


523 
3-41 


545 
4.21 


575 
S-42 


587 
2.09 


603 

2.86 



THE SPECIAL BRANCHES: GENERAL SOCIAL AND 
EDUCATIONAL POLICY 

By their nature the effective development of the special 
branches presents not only numerous special problems of 
instruction and supervision, but in addition certain complex 



68 City School Supervision 

issues of general social and educational policy. Notwith- 
standing the years of their testing, the special branches have 
not yet succeeded in attaining a recognized and guaranteed 
place in the program of studies of public schools. Their 
introduction has come only after an energetic and insistent 
campaign by those who have been convinced of their essen- 
tial worth in popular education. Their further extension, 
after introduction and recognition, has been dependent 
upon various fortuitous circumstances, such as varying 
available financial resources and the extent to which public 
interest has been aroused. Even with these things in mind 
the fundamental fact must not be overlooked that the suc- 
cessful incorporation of the special branches into the pro- 
gram of studies of elementary schools especially will take 
place only as the branches are in the hands of teachers and 
supervisors of training, skill, merit, and balance. 

The conspicuous problem of the special branches in New 
York City, as well as the country over, is to be found in the 
dearth of qualified and competent teachers. Until such 
teachers are the rule, rather than the exception, the road 
of progress of the special branch in the school, and outside 
of the school, is certain to be filled with obstacles. 

There are ample grounds for the judgment that, under 
existing conditions, the number of directors arid assistant 
directors, excepting in the case of the kindergartens, is suffi- 
cient to meet the demands for effective direction and super- 
vision. (A reduction in the number of special teachers as 
indicated in the next section would make necessary a certain 
additional number of assistant directors.) No attempt has 
been made to pass upon their supervisory methods and 
results.^ 

* These methods as they are influenced by their general relation to 
principals and district superintendents were the subject of careful dis- 
cussion at a special conference of directors and assistant directors held 
on April i6, 1912. It was clearly developed that the principal difficul- 
ties arise from the absence of a clear definition of the responsibility 
of the directors for their particular subjects. 



Directors and Assistant Directors 69 



SPECIAL TEACHERS 

As a matter of large importance in the general educa- 
tional policy of the city it is pertinent to inquire into the 
justification for special teachers; that is, those who teach 
these branches directly to the pupils and who therefore must 
be considered as belonging to the teaching, rather than the 
supervisory, staff. With respect to certain subjects more or 
less technical in character, and demanding a degree of spe- 
cial skill — as, for instance, sewing, cooking, and shop 
work — there can be no argument ; regular class teachers 
cannot be expected to give effective instruction in these 
subjects. 

A question of different character arises with reference to 
music, drawing, and physical training. Competency in these 
subjects is a requirement for License No. i, and has been 
for a considerable number of years. These subjects consti- 
tute an important part in the course of instruction in the 
training schools. Is it not reasonable to suppose that these 
subjects should be taught effectively by the regular teachers ? 
The presentment of the City Superintendent of Schools, in 
his Twelfth Annual Report (pp. 132-133), undoubtedly 
represents the situation : 

Curtailment of the Force of Special Teachers Made 
Necessary 

" Owing to the fact that the Board of Estimate and 
Apportionment has cut down the Board of Education's 
estimate for the payment of special teachers during 
the year 191 1 to a sum very much less than is required 
to pay the existing corps of special teachers at pres- 
ent rates of salary, it will be necessary to save about 
$150,000 during the year 191 1. This may be done 
either by reducing the salaries of the teachers at pres- 
ent in the service, or by abolishing a certain number 
of positions. If the latter plan is adopted, the ques- 
tion will arise whether, in view of the fact that the 



70 City School Supervision 

teaching of German and French is not pursued in the 
elementary schools for a sufficient length of time to 
give the pupils a mastery of these tongues, the teach- 
ing should not be eliminated altogether. Even if this 
action were taken, however, it would still be necessary 
to economize to the extent of $75,000 in the matter of 
teachers for the other branches. A special committee 
of your board has this very important subject under 
consideration at the present writing. I am strongly of 
the opinion that, whatever else is done, the work in 
shop work for boys, and cooking for girls, should not 
be curtailed. These are subjects which must be taught, 
if taught at all, by specialists. The economic and eth- 
ical value of teaching every girl to cook, and of giving 
every boy the use of his hands by the manipulation of 
the carpenter's tools, cannot be overestimated. In the 
other branches in which the work of the special teachers 
is largely supervisory, possibly some curtailment may 
be made, though it is greatly to be regretted that the 
necessity is forced upon us. It must be said, however, 
that the class teachers are now in a better position to 
do the work with reduced assistance than they were 
ten, or even five, years ago. A large proportion have 
been trained, and are able to accomplish results, 
though certainly not the best results, without assistance. 
" The fact is, on the other hand, that, though we 
are better prepared than we were for this service, the 
majority of class teachers are not yet fully equal to the 
demand that will presently be made upon them. Had 
it been deferred five years longer, it is probable that 
the special teachers of singing, sewing, physical train- 
ing, and drawing might have been dispensed with with- 
out serious injury to the schools. Your board has 
protested vigorously against any reduction in any of 
these activities. For whatever evil results may follow, 
therefore, the Board of Estimate and Apportionment 
must be held directly responsible." 



Directors and Assistant Directors yi 

It seems clear that steps should be taken at once to render 
unnecessary the majority of the special teachers in music, 
drawing-, and physical training, and to facilitate and hasten 
the effective qualijfication of regnlar class teachers. Those 
teachers who are qualified should receive an appropriate 
salary bonus. As long as the teaching of these subjects is 
chiefly in the hands of a special group of teachers, not only 
will the public continue to have reservations as to the right- 
ful place of such subjects in elementary education, but the 
regular teachers themselves will not be ready to assume 
responsibility for this special instruction, nor will principals 
consider it as among the objects of necessary attention. 



SUPERVISION OF THE KINDERGARTENS 

During the year 1910-1911 there were 823 kindergarten 
teachers. For the special supervision of these teachers there 
were two directors, one for Manhattan, The Bronx, and 
Richmond, and one for Brooklyn and Queens. As far as 
constructive supervision is concerned the great majority of 
the elementary school principals practically disregard the 
kindergarten. In consequence, the supervisory influence 
over the work of the 823 kindergartners is exerted by the 
one director and two assistant directors.^ Assuming an 
equal division of responsibility, this means one supervisor 
to 275 teachers. It further means that there is but slight 
possible relation between the " direction " and the " super- 
vision " of the kindergarten. The remedy for this situation 
may be either a reasonable increase in the number of assist- 
ant directors, or, what is of more importance, a far greater 
emphasis upon a knowledge of kindergarten ideals and 
technique than now obtains among those who become eli- 
gible for 'appointment to elementary school principalships. 
Ultimately, the educational service of the kindergarten must 
be measured in terms of its contributing influence upon the 

* For 1911-12. 



^2 City School Supervision 

later social and educational progress of the child. This is 
a desideratum for the maintenance of the kindergarten as a 
part of the public school system. If the kindergartens of 
the city are to be adopted as an essential part of a balanced 
and coherent scheme of elementary education, their intelli- 
gent supervision must be regarded as belonging to the proper 
province of the principal, acting as a supervisor. 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

It appears, from the more important of the foregoing 
considerations, that: 

(a) Under existing conditions the number of directors 
and assistant directors, excepting for the kindergarten, is 
sufficient to secure proper supervision of the special subjects. 
The relation of the director to the principal and the district 
superintendent is in need of clearer definition, and his re- 
sponsibility for the scope and method of his subject should 
be recognized. 

(b) Special teachers in certain of the special subjects 
should be made unnecessary by requiring competency on the 
part of regular teachers. 

(c) More adequate provisions should be made for the 
supervision of the kindergarten by the appointment of addi- 
tional assistant directors, and by making elementary school 
principals responsible for the supervision of the kinder- 
gartens to the same degree as they are for the other classes. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT, THE BOARD OF 
SUPERINTENDENTS, AND THE ASSOCIATE 
SUPERINTENDENTS ^ 

CURRENT CRITICISM 

BY far the most insistent and frequently expressed criti- 
cisms of existing educational conditions in the city are 
directed against the City Superintendent of Schools and 
the two bodies of which he is the principal member — the 
Board of Examiners and the Board of Superintendents; 
more particularly the latter. These criticisms have been 
developed from many quarters, within and without the 
school organization, from disinterested as well as interested 
individuals. In this, as in other aspects of the School In- 
quiry concerning which there have been strong personal 
differences and considerable public controversy, an endeavor 
has been made to discuss impersonally the issues raised, and 
to regard them exclusively from the standpoint of the ulti- 
mate effectiveness of the city's school system. 

It is pertinent to indicate here one very significant aspect 
of the whole general problem of supervisory control. Ob- 
viously, by far the most useful information and evidence 
relating to the methods and effectiveness of the work of 
supervisory officers of a complex school system can be 
obtained only from judicially tempered individuals within 
the system itself. We have been brought into contact with 
many such persons who, as teachers, principals, or super- 

* For a treatment of the more general aspects of the subject of this 
chapter see A. H. Chamberlain, The Grotvth of Responsibility and 
Enlargement of Power of the City School Superintendent (University 
of California Press, 1913). 

73 



74 City School Supervision 

intendents, were willing to bring forward unbiased and sub- 
stantiated testimony bearing directly upon the objects of 
investigation. These persons, however, were, except in the 
case of a few negligible and minor matters, expressly un- 
willing to permit themselves to appear as witnesses of 
record. The explanation invariably given was that any 
expression of critical judgments would militate seriously 
against their professional standing and advancement. This 
attitude of those within the schools, indefensible though it 
appears to be, has been so marked as to warrant this special 
mention, since it points to a condition of affairs wholly 
detrimental to the progressive development of the best 
interests of the schools. 

Those primarily responsible for school organization and 
its operation appear, intentionally or unintentionally, to 
have discouraged competent criticism and to have permitted 
incompetent triticism to undermine an intelligent public 
confidence. This must be regarded as unfortunate from 
every point of view. The capacity of a school system to 
produce results is determined, in the first instance, by its 
readiness to adapt itself to new problems and demands and 
by the completeness with which it undergoes this adapta- 
tion. In other words, this capacity is to be measured by 
the growth of the school system from the inside. The rate 
and quality of this growth are conditioned by the character 
of the scrutiny to which the workers within the system are 
encouraged and expected to submit the methods and aims, 
not only of their own activities, but those of their co- 
workers. The assumption by those in authority of attitudes 
other than of such encouragement and expectation means 
the maintenance of system for the sake of system, and not 
as a means to effective education of children.^ 

* In passing this judgment, there has been kept fully in mind the de- 
structive and negative influence of much of what passes as " disinter- 
ested criticism," which too frequently is but the expression of a narrow, 
querulous, and selfish discontent. In a great cosmopolitan population 
a certain amount of this is inevitable, inside and outside of the schools. 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 75 



THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT AND HIS POWERS 

The City Superintendent of Schools is elected by the 
Board of Education for a term of six years ; he may be re- 
moved, for cause, at any time by a vote of three-fourths of 
all the members of the board ; and he may be suspended by 
the board pending trial of charges. (Charter, sec. 1067.) 

By the provisions of the Revised Charter, and of the 
general school laws of the state, the office of the City Super- 
intendent is the key to supervisory organization and opera- 
tion of the educational system of the city. It is intended 
to be the connecting central link by which the various offices, 
institutions, and activities are brought into a working rela- 
tionship. The principal powers and duties of this officer, 
as prescribed by the charter and by the by-laws, are as 
follows : 

(a) He has a seat on the Board of Education, and the 
right to speak on all matters before the board, but not to 
vote. (Charter, sec. 1077.) 

(b) He has the right of visitation and inquiry in all the 
schools of the city. (Charter, sec. 1077.) 

(c) He reports to the Board of Education on the educa- 
tional system of the city, and upon the condition of any and 
all the schools thereof (Charter, sec. 1077) ; he submits an 
annual report (Charter, sec. 1078). 

(d) He is chairman, ex officio, of the Board of Super- 
intendents. (Charter, sec. 1079.) 

(e) He assigns, subject to the by-laws of the Board of 
Education, the duties of the associate and district super- 
intendents of schools. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

(f) He assigns twenty-three district superintendents, 
each to two districts, for one year; reassigns as he deems 
best for the interests of the school system; assigns three 
district superintendents to special duties — one to high 
schools, one to evening schools, and one to vacation schools, 
playgrounds, and recreation centers. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 



76 City School Supervision 

(g) He assigns to duty, and supervises and directs the 
work of, directors and assistant directors of special branches. 
(By-laws, sec. 42.) 

(h) He holds conferences of associate and district super- 
intendents. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

(i) He is chairman, ex officio, of the Board of Exam- 
iners, and nominates the members thereof for appointment 
by the Board of Education. (Charter, sec. 1089.) 

(j) He issues teachers' licenses; renews these licenses, 
and makes them permanent. (Charter, sec. 1089.) 

(k) He keeps in his office eligible lists of teachers. 
(Charter, sec. 1089.) 

(1) He is a member of the Permanent Census Board 
(Consol. Laws, chap. 16, art. 24, sec. 650), enforces the 
compulsory education law, nominates attendance officers, 
and directs their work. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

(m) He prescribes suitable registers, blank forms, and 
regulations for making reports. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

(n) He reports misconduct, insubordination, neglect of 
duty, or general inefficiency of any associate superintendent 
or district superintendent. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

(o) He empowers an associate superintendent to execute 
the duties of his office during absence or disability, (Char- 
ter, sec. 1078.) 

(p) He appoints and dismisses members of the clerical 
force of his office, subject to confirmation by the Board of 
Education. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

(q) He nominates teachers for schools maintained by 
the Department of Public Charities and Department of 
Correction. (Charter, sec. 1092.) 

(r) He is a member of the Board of Retirement. (Char- 
ter, sec. 1092.) 

The above enumeration is indicative of the number and 
direction of the lines of responsibility and influence of the 
City Superintendent. They do not, however, completely 
represent his real power. This cannot be delimited by stat- 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents yy 

utes or formal regulations, which define, principally, the 
extent of his administrative authority. His power as the 
chief supervisory officer of the school system can be meas- 
ured only in terms of his personal force and integrity, and 
his readiness or adroitness in responding to that multitude 
of unforeseen and unorganized situations which constantly 
emerge from our modern civic and political life. The 
fundamental, personal characteristic of supervision ^ means 
the assumption by him of an authority that is for him and 
for the school system both necessary and dangerous. 

The limitations of this Inquiry make it impossible to do 
more than to express a series of general judgments and 
recommendations regarding the office of the City Superin- 
tendent as at present constituted. Concerning one impor- 
tant feature of the particular issue, there is a general agree- 
ment: that the centralization of large administrative and 
supervisory authority in the City Superintendent, as pro- 
vided for by the Revised Charter, was absolutely necessary 
for the creation of a scheme of responsible school direction 
free from those prejudices and partisanships that have so 
often disorganized the institutions and public service of the 
city. That the schools of Greater New York have, during 
the past decade, been consolidated into a coherent whole is 
due, without question, to the perseverance, foresight, and 
wisdom of the present City Superintendent. His unyielding 
loyalty to certain of the fundamental principles of school 
control has brought the policy of centralization to a suc- 
cessful end. No serious study of the facts and circum- 
stances of the development of the school system could lead 
to any other conclusion. 

The City Superintendent has achieved distinguished suc- 
cess in protecting the school system and the teaching staff 
from the selfish influences that are always found in the pub- 
lic service of a great city — and this is conspicuous service. 
Through his long term of office, he has naturally aroused 

* See discussion of the meaning of Supervisory Control, p. ii. 



78 City School Supervision 

strong personal and organized opposition to his policies; 
but no competent and principled man could do otherwise. 

No other educational leader of this generation has had 
a task of such magnitude and complexity. It is improbable 
that another man could have succeeded as he has succeeded 
in unifying the school system and harmonizing the educa- 
tional forces of the city. Through his service and perform- 
ances, the office of city superintendent of schools in this 
country has been greatly magnified. He has made the New 
York public school system one of nation-wide significance. 

Mechanical consolidation, with the resulting standardi- 
zation of aims and values, has been effected. The next 
epoch of educational control will need to be dominated by 
the idea of establishing a scheme of decentralized, coopera- 
tive, expert supervision. Military standards of authority 
and organization cannot be permanently adapted to the en- 
terprise of education. Education, particularly public edu- 
cation, is a great cooperative undertaking, and must there- 
fore make provision for the initiative, independence, and 
creative activity of every individual charged with respon- 
sibility. The administrative efficiency of a great, complex 
school system demands a high degree of centralization of 
administrative power. On the other hand, the supervisory 
efficiency of the school system is conditioned by a degree 
of cooperation which has not yet been fully comprehended 
by the City Superintendent.^ Machinery stifles individual- 
ity; cooperative effort expands individuality. The teach- 
ing of children and the direction of their education are de- 
pendent, ultimately, upon freedom, not repression. 

The preeminent difficulty of the existing situation arises, 
as has already been pointed out,^ from the failure to dis- 
tinguish clearly between effective administrative control and 
effective supervisory control. In so far as the City Super- 
intendent is an administrative officer, his powers should be 
broad and direct. As a supervisory officer, he should be 

* See pp. 175-176. ' See p. 13. 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 79 

the executive agent of the supervisory and teaching staff. 
In several respects his administrative authority should be 
enlarged. This is especially true with regard to many ac- 
tivities now under the control of the Board of Superintend- 
ents. The scope and method of his supervisory functions 
need to be submitted to thorough study and investigation. 
Consequently, it has been recommended that the Bureau of 
Investigation and Appraisal ^ undertake to define the legiti- 
mate functions of the City Superintendent as a supervisory 
officer, with the end of securing to the schools the benefits 
of the great amount of productive power which, under the 
present organization, must be latent. The proposed plan 
of reorganization of the supervisory staff and the creation 
of the Supervisory Council is merely suggestive of the idea 
of efficient, cooperative organization. 



THE BOARD OF SUPERINTENDENTS : ORGANIZATION AND 

POWERS 

The important questions concerning the Board of Su- 
perintendents that present themselves are the following: 
Has this body the proper constitution, powers, and methods 
of procedure to enable it to render to the city the maximum 
of educational service? In other words, is it an effective 
instrument for the development and maintenance of edu- 
cational standards, and does it serve to bring about a desir- 
able degree of unity, harmony, and cooperation within the 
school system? 

The general practise throughout the country of super- 
visory or quasi-supervisory control of schools by a special 
board or committee, composed of the City Superintendent 
of Schools and his deputy, assistant, or associate superin- 
tendents, had been generally followed in New York ^ and 

* See pp. 179-180. 

* " The City Superintendent or his assistants shall visit every school 
at least once each year, and shall examine the same in all matters pre- 
scribed by subdivision i, section 1040, Consolidation Act of 1882." (By- 



8o City School Supervision 

« 
Brooklyn ^ prior to the consolidation of 1897. To this spe- 
cial board or committee were given, in greater or less 
amount, those powers, duties, and responsibilities which, in 
small communities, and in the earlier stages of the histori- 
cal development of our municipal school control, belonged to 
the office of the City Superintendent alone, or were exer- 
cised in part directly by the Board of Education. 

The charter of 1897 extended the application of the prin- 
ciple involved to the four borough organizations.^ 

laws, Board of Education, 1895, sec. 36, par. I ; also, By-laws, 1897, sec. 
31, par. 5-) 

" It shall be the duty of the Board of Superintendents to meet at 
least twice in each month during the school year for the purpose of 
consultation, interchange of views, assignment of duties, consideration 
of reports, and all other matters relating to the efficient management 
of the schools, in accordance with the provisions of the law relating 
thereto." (By-laws, 1897, sec. 32, par. 2.) 

^ " The associate superintendents (2) shall cooperate with the Super- 
intendent in carrying out the rules of the Board. They shall report to 
him at such times and in such manner as he shall direct, the results 
of their several examinations, which shall be subject at all times to the 
inspection of the members of the Board. The Superintendent shall 
designate one of his associates to act in his place whenever he is unable 
to discharge the duties of his office. Should he fail to do so, the 
Teachers' Committee shall designate the associate." (By-laws and 
Rules of the Board of Education of the City of Brooklyn, 1896, sec. 12.) 

* "A school board shall have power, by a vote of a majority of its 
members in office, to appoint a Borough Superintendent of Schools for 
six years. It shall have power to appoint, for a like term, not more 
than one Associate Borough Superintendent of Schools for the first 
seven hundred teachers in the schools under its charge, and not more 
than one additional Associate Borough Superintendent for every addi- 
tional three hundred fiJty teachers, or fractional number thereof, 
greater than one-half; provided, however, that there shall be, in any 
event, two associate Borough Superintendents in the Boroughs of 
Queens and Richmond respectively." (The Greater New York Char- 
ter, 1897, sec. 1 102.) 

" A Borough Superintendent and the Associate Superintendent 
therein shall constitute the Board of Superintendents for the Borough, 
to be known as the Borough Board of Superintendents. . . ." (The 
Greater New York Charter, 1897, sec. 1107.) 

"The Borough Superintendents and the Associate Superintendents 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 8i 

The evident intention of the Revised Charter of 1901 was 
to bring about such a degree of centraHzation of control 
as would permit the establishment of uniform standards 
throughout the entire school system, and at the same time 
remove those petty differences of policy that had hindered 
the logical development of available educational opportu- 
nities for the people of the city. At the same time, the 
framers of the educational sections of the charter recog- 
nized the necessity of compromise and of gradual adapta- 
tion to new conditions. 

The eight associate superintendents of schools, together 
with the City Superintendent, as chairman, constitute the 
Board of Superintendents. These associate superintend- 
ents are elected by the Board of Education for a term of six 
years. (Charter, sec. 1079.) Like the City Superintend- 
ent, they may be removed for cause at any time by a vote 
of three-fourths of the members of the Board of Education, 
and also may be suspended by this board pending a trial of 
charges. (Charter, sec. 1067.) 

Each associate superintendent fulfils two sets of duties; 
first, as a member of the Board of Superintendents, and, 
second, as an assistant to the City Superintendent, by whom 
he is assigned to duty. (Charter, sec. 1078.) 

The principal powers and authorities of the Board of 
Superintendents, as prescribed by the charter and defined 
by the by-laws of the Board of Education, are : 

shall visit every school in their respective Boroughs, and shall inquire 
into all matters relating to the government, courses of study, methods 
of teaching, discipline, and conduct of such schools, and the condition 
of the school houses and of the schools generally, and shall examine 
classes when necessary. The Borough Superintendents shall report the 
results of such inspection and examinations to the School Board and 
to the City Superintendent, who shall transmit such parts of said re- 
ports as he may consider necessary or proper to the Board of Educa- 
tion of the City of New York, and they shall also report to the City 
Superintendent at such times, concerning such matters, and in such 
form as said Superintendent shall require. . . ." (The Greater New 
York Charter, 1897, sec. 1108.) 



82 City School Supervision 

a. Recommending for approval by the Board of Educa- 
tion the kinds and grades of Hcenses, and the academic and 
professional qualifications therefor. (Charter, sec. 1089.) 

b. Nominating from eligible lists for appointment, trans- 
fer, or promotion, all members of the teaching and super- 
visory staff. (Charter, sec. 1090.) 

c. Determining the fitness and merit of principals and 
teachers for increase of salary. (Charter, sec. 1091.) 

d. Nominating to the Board of Education district super- 
intendents and directors of special branches. (Charter, 
sec. 1079.) 

e. Recommending to the Board of Education the adop- 
tion and modification of courses of study. (Charter, sec. 
1084.) 

f. Issuing syllabuses of the courses of study. (Charter, 
sec. 1086.) 

g. Prescribing regulations for principals for the direc- 
tion of the methods of teaching. (Charter, sec. 1086.) 

h. Recommending to the Board of Education the estab- 
lishment of schools, kindergartens, and special features in 
schools. (Annual Report, 191 1, p. 13.) 

i. Recommending to the Board of Education, for ap- 
proval, text-books and other scholastic supplies. (Charter, 
sec. 1083.) 

j. Recommending to the Board of Education changes in 
the grades and classes of all schools. (Charter, sec. 1084.) 

k. Establishing, subject to the approval of the Board of 
Education, rules and regulations for the admission, promo- 
tion, transfer, and graduation of pupils. (Charter, sec. 
1082.) 

1. Keeping records of principals and teachers. (Charter, 
sec. 1 08 1.) 

m. Assigning of special teachers to the several school dis- 
tricts. (Charter, sec. 1085.) 

n. Excusing absences of teachers with pay, and granting 
leave of absence to teachers without pay. (Charter, sec. 
1088.) 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 83 

To carry on its work the Board of Superintendents is 
organized into appropriate committees. During the year 
1910-11 these committees were as follows: 

1. Committee on the nomination, transfer, and assign- 

ment of teachers. (Three members.) 

2. Committee on school management. (Three mem- 

bers.) 

3. Committee on course of study. (Three members.) 

4. Committee on text-books, libraries, and supplies. 

(Three members.) 

5. Committee on high schools. (Three members.) 

6. Committee on training schools. (One member.) 

7. Committee on evening schools. (One member.) 

8. Committee on vacation schools, playgrounds, and rec- 

reation centers. (One member.) 

9. Committee on compulsory education. (One member.) 

10. Committee on records, forms, and reports. (One 

member. ) 

11. Committee on vocational schools and classes for de- 

fectives. (One member.) 

Each member is chairman of at least one committee, and 
is a member of one or two other committees. The number 
of the committees has been increased since the first organi- 
zation of the board — from six, in 1902-3, to the present 
number (eleven). Through this means the board has en- 
deavored to meet the newer problems growing out of the 
increased magnitude and complexity of the school system. 



THE BUREAUCRACY OF THE BOARD OF SUPERINTENDENTS 

On September 25, 191 1, replies to the following questions 
were requested from the City Superintendent and each of 
the associate superintendents : 

I. a. What studies have been made by the Board of 
Superintendents of its organization, powers, and 



84 City School Supervision 

duties, and what reports have been made by it to 
the City Superintendent, or to the Board of Edu- 
cation, based on such studies? 

b. Have any such studies or reports been made by 

you as a member of the board? 

c. Are any such studies or reports on file? 

2. a. What phase of your work as an associate superin- 

tendent consumes most of your time — construc- 
tive educational activities, or routine details? 

b. About what proportion of your time is devoted 

to the latter ? 

c. What proportion, if any, of these routine matters 

could be delegated to subordinates ? 

3. What amendments to the by-laws have been passed 

during the past five years on the recommendation 
of the Board of Superintendents pertaining to 
that board? 

An analysis of the replies submitted by the City Super- 
intendent of Schools and six of the eight associate super- 
intendents exhibits significant problems and points of view. 
It is plainly evident from the testimony of the replies to the 
first question that the Board of Superintendents has un- 
consciously, or otherwise, permitted itself to remain static, 
both as to form and function, and in consequence thereof 
to become, to an unnecessary degree, a body exercising 
bureaucratic functions.^ It has contented itself with carry- 

^ The following statements in answer to Question 2 are typical : 

(a) " Most of my time is taken up by routine work." 

(b) " It is, in fact, quite difficult to determine just what portion of 
my work maj' be termed routine detail and what of a constructive na- 
ture. There is very little of what I do that could be delegated to 
subordinates." 

(c) " Probably routine duty takes most of my time. With a suffi- 
cient force, half of my routine duty could be delegated to subordinates." 

(d) " The only routine details that I recall are the passing on the 
renewal of teachers' licenses, and the approval of the service of 
teachers. These involve a careful investigation of the work of the 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 85 

ing out the prescriptions of the Revised Charter. Appar- 
ently neither the board nor any of its members has sub- 
jected its organization and prescribed powers and duties to 
that process of inner evaluation that opens the way for 
progressive development and ready adjustment.^ " Its 
powers and duties are clearly specified in the law, and have 
not, therefore, been made a subject of study " ^ reflects both 
the theory and the fact. 

The constitution, powers, and duties of this board, under 
the provisions of the Revised Charter, were the results of 
recognized compromise. It was, at the time of its organi- 
zation, perhaps the best instrumentality that could be de- 
vised to accomplish the task of bringing about a necessary 
homogeneity and coherence in the school system of the city. 
But to assume that, under the multiplying complex needs 
and rapidly altering conditions of the schools of the metro- 
politan city, it represented either as to form or function 
the most serviceable agency for the execution of new edu- 
cational policies and the development of progressive stand- 



teacher, as reported by principal and district superintendent. Fre- 
quently such a detail makes necessary a conference with a teacher, or 
an observation of her work in the class room by the associate superin- 
tendent in charge of the division. The proportion of time devoted to 
this routine in my office is comparatively small." 

(e) " It is difficult to say how much work may be regarded as rou- 
tine. More or less of it may become routine and be done through the 
clerical force." 

(f ) " Clerical work has consumed much of my time. . . . Most of the 
routine details have a constructive educational aspect; yet most of 
them might be delegated to faithful subordinates." 

* In a supplementary reply dated September 25, igii, the City Super- 
intendent furnished a list of the recommendations made by the Board 
of Superintendents to the Board of Education during the period 1906- 
191 1 for the amendment of the by-laws. With one or two minor ex- 
ceptions, these recommendations deal with matters of administrative 
detail. In no instance is there apparent an issue fundamental to the 
Board of Superintendents itself. 

* Communication of the City Superintendent of Schools to School 
Inquiry, September 26, 191 1. 



86 City School Supervision 

ards is fatuous. Nevertheless, it appears that an effort to 
modify the organization, or to redefine its functions, has 
always encountered the strenuous opposition of the mem- 
bers of the board. 

For the ready execution of administrative duties the 
Board of Superintendents is an unwieldy and unnecessarily 
complicated organization. Since the time of its organiza- 
tion it has tended to become more and more involved in its 
own operation. Fully three-quarters of the matters now 
brought before and considered by the Board of Superin- 
tendents could be cared for independently by a city super- 
intendent of schools, acting in an administrative capacity. 
Every page of the minutes of the meetings of this board 
bristles with trivial items, or with matters that could be 
handled directly by a single competent executive or regu- 
lated automatically by a general rule. The remaining quar- 
ter pertains to matters of educational detail and supervisory 
policy that should be determined upon by those whose ac- 
tivities bring them into constant actual contact with the 
work of teachers and pupils. 

Appendices D and E, which reproduce the official min- 
utes of the Board of Superintendents for two of its regular 
meetings ^ during 191 1, are representative. These particu- 
lar minutes were selected at random from the published 
annual volume by an entirely disinterested person. They 
fairly represent the various types of matters engaging the 
attention of the board. While it may be argued that all 
of these items necessitate action by the Board of Superin- 
tendents, in compliance with legal requirements, the conten- 
tion that the machinery of the Board of Superintendents is 
unnecessary to secure proper administrative control and is 
too complicated to secure prompt and well-considered action 

^ " The Board of Superintendents shall meet at least twice in each 
school month during the year. It shall keep minutes of its meetings, 
which shall be printed, and a copy thereof shall be mailed to each mem- 
ber of the Board of Education." (By-laws, Board of Education, sec. 
40-5- ) 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 87 

on matters of moment affecting the welfare of schools is 
still upheld. The usual order of procedure, whereby a mul- 
titude of routine matters must go from the school to the 
district superintendent, from the district superintendent to 
the Board of Superintendents, there referred to one of its 
committees for investigation and report back to the board, 
then from the Board of Superintendents to the Board of 
Education, there referred to one of its committees for con- 
sideration, from the committee to the Board of Education, 
thence back to the Board of Superintendents, is one that 
would not be tolerated by a well-organized industrial or 
commercial establishment. Indeed, such establishments 
could not be maintained under such a policy of multiplex 
checks and balances. The public educational system is one 
of the city's largest business undertakings. There is no 
reason why it should not be brought under that general 
regime of control that has been found necessary for the 
effective control and economical direction of commercial 
institutions. 

Using as an illustration the minutes of the Board of Su- 
perintendents for January 19, 1911,^ it may be urged that 
practically all of the numerous matters relating to the leave 
of absence of teachers (Items 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 18, 19, 30, 31, 
32, 33, 34, and 51), to the assignment of teachers (Items 
9, 22, 29, 46, 47, 48, 53, 54, 56, and 59), to the transfer of 
teachers (Items 15, 37, 38, 39, 41, and 43), to the nomina- 
tion of teachers (Items 16, 17, 20, 24, 27, 40, 44, and 45), 
could better be regulated by general rules or by a single 
responsible individual. So also with Items 6, 12, and 21. 
Similar conclusions may be drawn from a review of the 
items contained in the minutes of the meeting for October 
26, 191 1. 

The Board of Superintendents has failed to meet, in any 
complete manner, the obligations laid upon it. The primary 
cause is to be found in the disinclination of the members 
frankly to appraise their own usefulness as the center of 

* See p. 196. 



88 City School Supervision 

constructive influence, and in their reluctance to weigh the 
more or less frequent criticisms of the methods and powers 
of the board. 



THE ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT AS A SUPERVISOR OF 

SCHOOLS 

By the provisions of the charter the City Superintendent 
of Schools has the power to assign the eight associate super- 
intendents, " subject to the by-laws of the Board of Edu- 
cation,^ to such duties as, in his judgment, will be conducive 
to the welfare of the public schools of the City of New 
York." As members of the Board of Superintendents, the 
associate city superintendents are responsible for the direc- 
tion and administration of those numerous activities directly 
and indirectly related to the supervision of instruction. 
The bearing of these activities upon the performance of the 
supervisory functions of the associate superintendents has 
already been discussed. The system of divisional or geo- 
graphical supervision,^ which has been in operation since 

* " The Associate City Superintendents shall perform such service in 
connection with the duties of their office as the City Superintendent of 
Schools may direct." (By-laws, Board of Education, sec. 40-4.) 

* " A careful study of the workings of the system in the several dis- 
tricts soon convinced me that responsibility among members of the 
Board of Superintendents must also be determined and definitely 
fixed. Such a plan, moreover, I felt would give the teachers and the 
people a more direct representation in the Board of Superintendents 
than the charter contemplated. To bring about this improvement I in- 
troduced a scheme of grouping several school districts into a division, 
and assigned to the care of each division one of the Associate City 
Superintendents. This plan, while not prescribed by the charter, is 
entirely in consonance with its intent, and certainly is in no way pro- 
hibited. I found it expedient to constitute seven of these divisions 
among the elementary schools, and to place the high schools of the 
entire city in the eighth division. Under this plan, the District Super- 
intendents, and through them the schools in their respective districts, 
are made directly responsible to an Associate City Superintendent, who, 
in turn, is responsible for the educational welfare of his division of the 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 89 

1902, whatever may have been its original utility, now quite 
obviously yields a service of doubtful worth to the schools 
of the city.^ 

The Board of Education and the City Superintendent of 
Schools were, without doubt, fully warranted in employ- 
ing the divisional plan of assignment as an expedient to 
bring about that necessary, though at best partial, adjust- 
ment between the demands of a complex and rapidly devel- 
oping educational situation and the capacities of the indi- 
viduals whose ofificial position in the school organization was 
acquired by status rather than by specific fitness for the 
new service. Nevertheless, it requires an extremely liberal 
and uncritical estimate of the requisite effectiveness of the 

city. The Division Superintendent under this plan is supposed to rep- 
resent directly in the Board of Superintendents the interests of the 
schools under his charge." (Fifth Annual Report, City Superintendent 
of Schools, 1903, pp. 13 and 14.) 

^ " The assignment of the Associate City Superintendents to the 
supervision of divisions of the city was first made in 1902, v^rhen several 
different school systems were brought together under a uniform ad- 
ministration. Supervision by geographical divisions seemed at that 
time to be the only feasible plan. The division superintendents have 
done good work in bringing the many diverse interests then existing 
under one harmonious working system. I am convinced, however, that 
that method of supervision has now rendered the highest service it is 
calculated to yield, and that the time has arrived when it ought to give 
place to a system more in harmony with present conditions. Such a 
plan I hope to put into execution at an early date. It will require each 
of the associates to devote his time and energy to some particular kind 
of work throughout the entire city, instead of devoting them to all 
kinds of work within a limited area." (Twelfth Annual Report, City 
Superintendent of Schools, 1910, pp. 18 and 19.) 

" In my Twelfth Annual Report I stated my intention of changing 
the assignment of the Associate City Superintendents, so that each of 
these officers should be assigned to some particular kind of work 
throughout the entire city, instead of devoting himself to all kinds of 
work within a limited area. I have deferred making this change, which 
I still consider desirable, pending the conclusion of the investigation of 
our city school system, now in progress by direction of the Board of 
Estimate and Apportionment." (Thirteenth Annual Report, City Su- 
perintendent of Schools, 191 1, p. 18.) 



90 City School Supervision 

system of supervision through the division superintendents 
to justify its continuance through an entire decade. 

It may be fairly assumed that the annual reports of the 
division superintendents contain pertinent evidence as to 
the quality of educational, as contrasted with executive or 
administrative, direction to which the schools of the division 
are subjected. Chance alone would tend to place in these 
reports the more significant performances and accomplish- 
ments rather than those of a minor or trifling nature. 
Nevertheless, a systematic survey of the contents of these 
reports for the past four or five years exhibits in conclusive 
form the absence of a constructive and projected program 
for the solution of the many problems confronting schools 
and teachers. With a few scattered exceptions,^ these re- 
ports are characterized by casual observation of matters of 
trifling importance, by a lack of comprehensive scientific 
insight into the problems of education and of school in- 
struction, by opinionated and unsupported conclusions and 
recommendations, by unnecessary repetition, and by discon- 
nected and conventional commentaries upon the accomplish- 
ments of schools. If these reports reflect even faintly the 
directive and constructive efflciency of the division super- 
intendents upon the work of the schools, and certainly the 
reports, which comprise practically one-tenth of the bulky 
annual report of the City Superintendent, should do this if 
they are to become a part of the most important public 
educational document of the country, we must come to the 
conclusion that the supervision of schools by the division 
superintendents is ineffective, unwise, and uneconomical. ^ 

The results of the Inquiry would support the intention of 
the City Superintendent of Schools to change the method 
of assignment to duty of the associate superintendents so 

^ For instance, Straubenmuller's reports on " Retardation and Over 
Age Problems," in the Twelfth Annual Report of the City Superintend- 
ent of Schools, pp. 225-238; and Thirteenth Annual Report, pp. 235- 
240 ; also Edson's report on " Savings in Expenditures," Ninth Annual 
Report, pp. 179-180. 



City, Board, and Associate Superintendents 91 

that each of these officers would devote himself to some 
particular work throughout the entire city, instead of to the 
whole problem of instruction within all of the schools of 
a limited area. 

Nevertheless, under the conditions represented by the 
personnel of the body of associate superintendents and the 
constitution of the Board of Superintendents, the only way 
toward greater supervisory as well as administrative effi- 
ciency is through a complete reconstruction of the super- 
visory organization, and a redistribution of the duties of 
the members of the supervisory staff. ^ 

GENERAL SUMMARY 

It appears from the more important of the foregoing 
considerations, that : 

(a) The attitude of the City Superintendent and the 
associate superintendents, acting either in an individual 
official capacity, or collectively as the Board of Superintend- 
ents, toward the members of the teaching and supervisory 
staff has discouraged competent criticism of the methods 
and effectiveness of the school system, and has prevented 
the development of a necessary spirit of cooperation within 
the school organization. 

(b) The accomplishment of the administrative consoli- 
dation of the public school system since 1898 has been due 
to the constitution of the office of the City Superintend- 
ent and to the skill and leadership of the present City 
Superintendent. 

(c) The present machinery of control represented by the 
City Superintendent, the Board of Superintendents, and 
the associate superintendents is too complicated for effect- 
ive administration, and too bureaucratic for effective 
supervision. 

(d) A larger concentration of authority over matters of 

* See Recommendations I, II, and III, pp. i68 fif. 



92 City School Supervision 

routine and administrative character in the City Superin- 
tendent, and a reorganization of the supervisory control 
so as to provide for a wider, responsible participation of the 
members of the teaching and supervisory staff in the making 
and oversight of educational policies, are necessary. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS 

ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS 

THE establishment of the Board of Examiners in 1898 
represented the first effective step taken for the uni- 
fication of the school system of the city. The powers con- 
ferred upon this board by the Revised Charter of 1901 have 
enabled it to exercise a deep and far-reaching influence. 
The board consists of the City Superintendent of Schools, 
together with four persons appointed by the Board of Edu- 
cation for a term of six years, upon the nomination of the 
City Superintendent.^ In accordance with the academic 
qualifications designated by the Board of Education, and 
on the recommendation of the Board of Superintendents, 
the Board of Examiners holds such examinations as are 
prescribed by the City Superintendent of Schools and pre- 
pares all eligible lists for principals, branch principals, su- 
pervisors, heads of departments, assistants, and all other 
members of the teaching staff. 

" Except as City Superintendent, or associate city super- 
intendent, or district superintendent, as director of a special 
branch, as principal of or teacher in a training school, or as 
principal of a high school, no person shall be appointed to 
any educational position whose name does not appear upon 
the proper eligible list." ^ 

* Charter, sec. 1089. 

' Charter, sec. 1089. 

" I. The Board of Examiners shall consist of the City Superin- 
tendent of Schools and of four persons appointed in accordance with 
Section 1089 of the Charter. The City Superintendent of Schools shall 
preside over the Board of Examiners. It shall be the duty of the 
Board of Elxaminers to conduct the examinations of all applicants re- 

93 



94 City School Supervision 

All licenses to teach are issued in the name of the City- 
Superintendent. 

Legally, the Board of Examiners has no right to fix the 
subjects of the examinations, or to determine the percentage 
for passing an examination, or to determine the conditions 
upon which examinations may be taken, or to propose re- 
quirements for licenses, or to designate the kinds of licenses 
required. Moreover, its members are dependent for elec- 
tion to office upon the City Superintendent, who has the 
right of nominating them. 

The broad functions of the board, as described by one of 
its members, are : " To supply to the schools a sufficient 
number of the best teachers available, keeping out as many 
as possible of the relatively unfit, and as few as possible of 
the relatively fit; to encourage those who are licensed to 
strive for promotion on merit, and to improve their work 
and themselves in every way possible; to lead the training 
schools, and other institutions preparing candidates for our 

quired to be licensed as teachers in and for the City of New York. 
Such examinations shall be conducted in accordance with the require- 
ments fixed by the Board of Education, and at such times as the City 
Superintendent may direct. 

"2. The City Superintendent of Schools shall prescribe the subjects 
in which candidates for licenses shall be examined, and shall determine 
the percentage which shall be required in order to constitute a success- 
ful examination, and also the conditions upon which the examination 
may be taken. 

" 3. Graduates of colleges and universities recognized by the Regents 
of the University of the State of New York, who have pursued for 
not less than one year pedagogical courses satisfactory to the City 
Superintendent; graduates of schools and colleges for the training of 
teachers, approved by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction ; 
and teachers holding a State certificate issued by the State Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction since the year eighteen hundred and 
seventy-five, or holding a college graduate's certificate issued by the 
same authority, or persons who on the first Monday of February, nine- 
teen hundred and two, were Associate Borough Superintendents of 
Schools in any Borough of the City of New York, may be exempted, in 
whole or in part, from such examination, at the discretion of the City 
Superintendent." (By-laws of the Board of Education, 1911, sec. 68.) 



The Board of Examiners 95 

examinations, into the most profitable lines of study and 
practise, the standards and procedure of the Board of Ex- 
aminers being, naturally, watched with the greatest care by 
all the ' feeders ' of the system ; and, in general, to admin- 
ister the merit system in such a way as to minimize its in- 
herent disadvantages and to gain the full benefit of its, in 
m}^ judgment, overwhelming advantages." ^ 

For the readier accomplishment of its many and complex 
duties, the board is organized into twenty-eight committees : 

Standing Committees 

" Section 7. There shall be the following standing 
committees : 

1 . A Committee on Appeals. 

2. A Committee on Approval of Courses. 

3. A Committee on License as Assistant to Principal. 

4. A Committee on By-laws. 

5. A Committee on Licenses to Teach Cooking in Ele- 

mentary Schools. 

6. A Committee on Licenses as Teacher of the Deaf. 

7. A Committee on Evening Recreation Center Licenses. 

8. A Committee on Evening Elementary and Evening 

High School Licenses. 

9. A Committee on Extension of Licenses. 

10. A Committee on Licenses to Teach German in Ele- 

mentary Schools. 

11. A Committee on High School Licenses. 

12. A Committee oil Licenses to Teach Italian in Ele- 

mentary Schools. 

13. A Committee on Kindergarten Licenses. 

14. A Committee on License No. i. 

15. A Committee on Licenses to Teach Manual Train- 

ing in Elementary Schools. 

* Communication of Examiner Walter L. Hervey, October 24, 191 1, 
in response to a series of questions submitted by the Committee on 
School Inquiry. 



96 City School Supervision 

16. A Committee on Licenses to Teach Music in Ele- 

mentary Schools. 

17. A Committee on Outside Experience. 

18. A Committee on Licenses to Teach Physical Training 

in Elementary Schools. 

19. A Committee on License as Principal in Elementary 

Schools. 

20. A Committee on Promotion and Graduating Class 

Licenses. 

21. A Committee on Replacing and Renewal of Licenses. 

22. A Committee on Licenses to Teach Sewing in Ele- 

mentary Schools. 
2;^. A Committee on Licenses to Teach Shop Work in 
Elementary Schools. 

24. A Committee on Licenses to Substitute in Elementary 

Schools. 

25. A Committee on Training School Licenses. 

26. A Committee on Truant School Licenses. 

27. A Committee on Ungraded Class Licenses. 

28. A Committee on Vacation School arid Vacation Play- 

grourid Licenses." 

" Section 8. The Committee on Appeals shall consist of 
four examiners ; each of the other committees shall consist 
of two members." 

" Section 9. The chairmanships of the several committees 
shall pass in rotation, annually, from examiner to exam- 
iner, the work being apportioned by mutual agreement, with 
approximate equality. The second member of each com- 
mittee of two shall be the examiner who was chairman of 
that committee for the preceding year." 

" Section 10. (a) It shall be the duty of the chairman of 
a committee, in consultation with his colleague, to conduct 
the work referred to such committee, and to report thereon 
to the board. 

" (b) In the case of those examinations which are an- 
nounced in one school year and held in the following school 



The Board of Examiners 97 

year, the committee scheduled to conduct the examination 
shall take charge of matters pertaining to the examination 
as soon as the announcement is issued." ^ 

The plan of rotation of committee assignments is calcu- 
lated to equalize the labor, to keep each member of the 
board in immediate touch with the entire range of its work, 
and to subject the conduct of the affairs of the board to pro- 
gressive revision. 

It is plain that the methods employed and the standards 
maintained by the Board of Examiners not only influence in 
a very direct manner the quality of teaching in the schools, 
but also fix the requirements for supervision.^ 

^ By-laws of the Board of Examiners, 1907. 

* " The work of the Board of Examiners is more vital to the spread 
and progress of sound public education than that of any other depart- 
ment of public school administration. Their function is to provide 
eligible lists of efficient teachers, and to exclude from the schools those 
who fail to pass ' the required tests of character, scholarship, and gen- 
eral fitness.' The most rigid investigation, if fairly conducted, would 
demonstrate that the examiners have performed this arduous and deli- 
cate task with thoroughness and impartiality. Every influence, how- 
ever, that would restore the appointment of teachers to the domination 
of political influence, every institution for the training of teachers in 
which weak and inefficient work is done, every rejected applicant who 
can imagine or invent a plausible reason for his failure, is apt to be 
arrayed against the Board of Examiners. The gentlemen who com- 
pose that board, however, as long as they hold office, will not cease to 
maintain, and, if possible, to elevate the standard for entrance to the 
teaching profession in this city, and will reject with all necessary firm- 
ness the delusion which seems to have taken possession of so many 
minds, that the examiners may be expected to overlook ignorance and 
to condone professional inefficiency. 

" It is worthy of note that the plan of licensing teachers after tests 
conducted by an independent Board of Examiners, and of appointing 
teachers in order of merit from eligible lists prepared by such a board 
— a plan which has done so much to raise the standard of teaching in 
our city, and to eliminate political, social, and sectarian influence from 
the appointment of teachers — has been adopted, and is now followed in 
Chicago, 111., in Buffalo, N. Y., and in Newark, N. J. When a city has 
reached such a size that the selection of teachers has grown too great 



98 City School Supervision 

Methods and standards that result in the eligiblHty of 
fully qualified teachers reduce the necessity for supervision. 

a task for a superintendent to undertake, then appointment as a result 
of competitive examination is the only plan as yet invented that meets 
the exigencies of the situation. 

" As far as I am able to learn, the application of competitive exam- 
ination to the selection of teachers was first proposed by the late George 
William Curtis, when he was Chancellor of the University of the State 
of New York. His eloquent words still remain its best justification and 
defense : 

" ' Is not every argument for the appointment of the great body of 
ministerial officers of the government by fitness and character wisely 
ascertained infinitely stronger when applied to the selection of school 
teachers? And if the selection of those officers by methods which 
secure their independence, promote their self-respect, and stimulate 
their interest and zeal, instead of destroying it, greatly increases the 
efficiency of the public service, elevates the tone of pubHc employment, 
and removes a reproach from the national name, is it to be apprehended 
that similar care would harm the character and efficiency of the public 
schools? In other branches of the public service, whatever objections 
may be urged against the reformed system of appointment, it is unde- 
niably better than the system which it supplants. Whatever foolish 
questions may be asked, whatever possible frauds practised in an ex- 
amination, they are wholly insignificant when compared to the unspeak- 
able folly and the certain fraud of appointment by patronage or mere 
personal and partisan favor. There could not be a worse system of 
selection in all the other branches of the public service. Is it the best 
one for the great department of primary education? 

"'Yet is it not substantially the present method? Teacherships in 
the schools are not popularly regarded as subjects of patronage. But 
are they not so practically, and is it wise that they should remain so? 
What is the present system? I believe that the requirement of certifica- 
tion or license before appointment is universal in all the States of the 
Union. The examination upon which the certificate or license issues is, 
then, the cardinal point. What are the vital, essential conditions of ef- 
fective examination? To be properly effective the examinations must 
be uniform, entirely competent, and wholly independent of the appointing 
power. The examiners must be sincerely interested in education, fa- 
miliar with the duties of a teacher and with the requirements of the 
art of teaching, and capable of conducting an examination to ascertain 
both the scholastic attainments and the specific professional fitness of 
the candidates. Wherever these conditions do not exist the public 
school system, and therefore the whole community, suffers. It is a 



The Board of Examiners 99 

Methods and standards that result in the eligibihty of par- 
tially fit or unfit teachers increase the burden of responsi- 
bility placed upon the supervisory staff. 

THE WORK OF THE BOARD ^ 

Tlie Board of Examiners does not merely supervise the 
conduct of examinations; its members personally direct all 
written tests, and personally intei-view all applicants who 
pass such tests ; prepare all question papers ; actually read 
a large proportion of answer papers, especially for the 
more important grades of licenses; supervise and in many 
cases review the reading of all other answer papers ; or- 
ganize the conduct of all kinds of practical tests in special 
subjects ; carry on in person class-room tests of certain large 
groups of applicants; pass upon the eligibility of applicants 
under the by-laws of the Board of Education ; vote upon all 
matters of licensing and upon the adoption of all eligible 
lists; conduct hearings, and consider written appeals of all 
dissatisfied applicants who demand such consideration ; fix 
salary allowances for outside experience ; renew and extend 
expired or limited licenses ; grant or withhold approval of 
courses of study offered in lieu of certain examinations ; 
recommend to the Board of Superintendents proposed 
changes in the by-laws of the Board of Education ; weigh 
and, when advisable, institute changes in the policy, organi- 
zation, and methods of the board, with respect to the scope 
and conduct of examinations for any grade or grades of 
licenses.^ 

common wrong, a common injury. The people of this country tax 
themselves heavily enough for the support of schools and teachers to 
entitle them to the best, and to the adoption of all means plainly neces- 
sary to secure the best.' " (From Seventh Annual Report of the City 
Superintendent of Schools, pp. 80-82.) 

* In connection with this section careful consideration has been 
given to the report of the Special Committee appointed to investigate 
the methods, etc., of the Board of Examiners, submitted in 1905 
(Minutes of the Board of Education, November 22, 1905). 
* Communication of Examiner G. J. Smith, September 28, 191 1, 



100 City School Supervision 

The following table (XI), showing the total number of 
persons examined for the various grades and kinds of li- 
censes, the number passed and placed upon eligible lists, and 
the number failed, is indicative of the volume of work com- 
mitted to the Board of Examiners : 

TABLE XI 

Showing Number of Persons Examined, Number Licensed, and Number 
Failed, 1905-1911 ^ 

Niunber Number Number 

Examined Licensed Refused 

190S 12,181 7,810 4,371 

1906 11,673 8,126 3,547 

1907 13,494 10,086 3,408 

1908 13,522 9,906 3,616 

1909 13,074 9,536 3,538 

1910 13,657 9,163 4,442 * 

1911 14,626 10,226 4,400 

* 52 pending. 

Table XII, on pp. 102 and 103, shows for the years 
1909, 1910, and 191 1 the number of those who passed the 
examinations for the various grades of licenses and had 
their names placed upon the proper eligible lists, and the 
number of those who failed. 

A detailed examination of Table XII reveals the extent 
to which the methods and standards of the Board of 
Examiners select and reject candidates for the several 
grades of licenses. Particular attention is called to the 
high percentage of rejections in the case of candidates- for 
licenses as high school teachers, as principals of elementary- 
schools, for promotion, and for the several special branches. 

Tables XI and XII likewise represent the magnitude of 
the responsibility committed to the Board of Examiners. 
The handling of a total of forty-one thousand cases during 
three years has required a degree of skill, ingenuity, and 

* Compiled from the reports of the City Superintendent of Schools. 



The Board of Examiners loi 

foresight not required of any other controlling body in the 
school system.^ 

THE METHOD OF THE BOARD 

It is manifestly impossible for this Inquiry to consider in 
detail the prescribed preliminary qualifications for eligibility 
for the various kinds and grades of licenses issued for ser- 
vice in the public schools of the city.^ Such consideration 
should be undertaken in any complete study of the effective- 
ness of the Board of Examiners, since these preliminary 
qualifications constitute the first stage of the process of selec- 
tion of those fitted for the educational service.^ It has been 
assumed that the prescribed conditions of age, education, 
training, and experience for eligibility for licensing have 
been established as the best workable balances between the 
supply of and demand for teachers. 

Furthermore, it is not possible to pass upon the scope and 
detailed characteristics of the examinations for the various 
grades of licenses. Certain matters of important general 
policy with respect to these examinations do, however, re- 
quire brief consideration. These matters include the writ- 
ten examinations in the so-called professional subjects 
(history and principles of education, psychology, general 
method, methods of teaching special subjects, school man- 
agement), the oral examinations, and practical tests. 

The questions used, and the scope of the written exam- 

* " Let me point out the interesting fact that though the work of the 
board has increased remarkably in thirteen years, . . . the cost of the 
examination system remains about the same, the increase, if any, being 
very slight." (Communication of Examiner J. A. O'Connell, October 3, 
1911.) 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, sec. 66. 

* " Although the Board of Superintendents, under the Charter, pro- 
pose to the Board of Education the qualifications for each grade or 
kind of license, the present by-laws setting forth such qualifications 
were, with few exceptions, prepared by the Board of Examiners in 
1902." (Communication of Examiner J. A. O'Connell, October 3, 
1911.) 



I02 



City School Supervision 



TABLE XII 

Showing the Number and Percentage of Licenses Granted, 





1909 


1910 


Grade 


-2 

1 



•a 
1 






•T3 

1) 

s 
6 


Pi 


1 
p^ 


Training Schools: 

Model Teachers 

Assistant Teachers 

Critic Teachers 

Clerical Assistants 

Substitute Teachers 

First Assistant Teachers 

High Schools: 

Principals 


5 

II 

5 

I 

13 

3 

20 

Qi 

34 

I 

3 

250 

I 

I 
91 

i',268 
99 

15 
2 

24 
I 
I 

IS 
8 
5 
2 

1,64s 

I 
3 

3,339 

I 
4 

7S4 
1,817 


I 
I 

I 
I 

I 
200 
IS4 

16^ 

3 

17 

587 
137 

29 

■48 
8 

3^6 
22 

4 
14 
S 
331 
3 
4 

848 
3 
IS 

349 
543 




6 

12 

S 

3 

13 

2 

21 

291 

188 

I 

7 
411 

3 

I 
108 

i^Sss 
236 

44 

2 

72 

9 

10 

SI 

30 

9 

16 

9 

1,976 

4 

7 

4,187 
4 
19 

1,103 
2,360 


6 

8 
4 

I 
S 

■■'6 

248 

131 

II 

10 

203 

12 

I 
125 

1,296 
79 

29 
2 
3 

29 
5 
S 

II 

I 

1,341 

2 

S 

3,073 

728 
1,78s 


39S 
301 

16 

6 

i6s 

39 

202 

■48 

S09 
70 

■fe 

2 

19 

37 

"6 
12 

I 
1,796 

120 
322 




Assistants 








Laboratory Assistants 








Elementary Schools: 

Principals 

Assistants to Principals 

Graduating Class Licenses 

Promotion Licenses 


S2 


Kindergarten Licenses 

Special Branches: 

Insp. and Asst. Insp. Athletics .... 
Director and Asst. Dir. Physical Training 








Manual Training and Drawing .... 




Sewing 




Ungraded Class Licenses 

Teachers of Deaf 








Teachers in Truant Schools 

Teachers in Vocational Schools . . . 
Teachers in Vacation Playgrounds and 
Evening Recreation Centers .... 

Inspectors, Classes for Blind 

Principals, Vocational Schools .... 

Evening Schools: 

Evening High School Teachers .... 
Evening Elementary School Teachers . 
Substitute Licenses 




Total 


9,S36 


3,538 




13,074 


9,165 


4,442 


52 


Per Cent 


72.9 


27.1 






67.4 


32.6 









In the computation of the percentages the 



The Board of Examiners 



103 



TABLE XII 

Refused, and Pending during the Years 1909, 1910, and 191 i 





1911 


Totals 














Granted 


Refused 


Pendiag 


Total 
Number 


















































V. 


•0 


to 




kl 


a 


kl 


a 


M 







"Ta 


a 


3 


a 
••3 


"rt 


Q 


U 


J3 







c5 




e2 


2 




I 


g 


^ 




8 


;z; 


u 


1 


l-l 

(2 




6 


7 


1 




8 


18 


90.0 


2 


lO.O 






30 


8 


6 


2 




8 


25 


89.3 


5 


10.7 






28 


4 










9 


lOO.O 










9 


I 


3 






"a 


4 


80.0 


I 


20.0 






5 


5 


2 
I 






2 
I 


19 
I 

3 


9S.O 

lOO.O 


I 


SO 






30 

I 

2 


"6 










36 


96.3 


I 


3-7 






27 


643 


19s 


298 




493 


534 


37.4 


893 


62.6 






1,427 


432 


104 


294 




398 


369 


36.4 


749 


73-6 






1,018 


27 


I 






I 


13 


44.8 


16 


55-2 






29 


16 


3 


IS 




17 


15 


37-5 


25 


62.5 






40 


368 


164 


98 




263 


617 


59-3 


424 


40.7 






1,041 


SI 


4 


6 




10 


17 


26.6 


47 


73-4 






64 


254 


53 


13 




66 


S3 


19.8 


315 


80.2 


S3 




320 


I 


37 






37 


39 


lOO.O 










29 


173 


71 


44 




IIS 


387 


72.5 


109 


27-5 






396 




25 


63 




87 


25 


28.7 


63 


713 






87 


i>8os 


1,191 


392 




1.583 


3,755 


71.6 


1,488 


28.4 






5,243 


149 


74 


45 




119 


353 

IS 

3 


50.0 
34-1 

lOO.O 


353 
29 


50.0 
65-9 






504 

44 
2 


'89 


42 


33 




7S 


95 


40-3 


141 


59-7 






236 


4 


I 


I 




3 


4 


26.7 


II 


73-3 






IS 


22 


13 


13 




25 


16 


38.1 


41 


71.9 






57 


66 


29 


34 




63 


73 


40.6 


107 


59-4 






180 


S 










13 


37-2 


22 


62.8 






35 


II 


9 


13 




32 


19 


4S-2 


23 


54-8 






42 


23 


14 


»S 




29 


27 


39-7 


41 


60.3 






68 


I 


8 


4 




13 


13 


59-1 


9 


40.9 






22 


1,657 


1,143 


3SS 




1,497 


4,138 


80s 


1,002 


19-5 






S.I30 


3 




6 




6 


3 


25.0 


9 


750 






12 


6 


"46 


107 




153 


54 


32.S 


113 


67.S 






166 


4,869 


3,578 


1,277 




4,855 


9,990 

I 
4 


71.8 

25-0 
21. 1 


3,921 

3 
15 


38.3 
750 
78.9 






13,911 
4 
19 


848 


l,oS9 


260 




1,319 


2,541 


77-7 


729 


32.3 






3.270 


2,107 


2,23s 


909 




3,144 


5,837 


76.7 


1,774 


233 






7,611 




122 


103 




225 


122 


54-2 


103 


45-8 






225 


13.659 


10,226 


4,400 




14,626 


28,927 


70.0 


12,380 


30.0 


52 




41,359 




699 


30.1 






70.0 




300 











pumber of licenses pending has been disreftarded, 



104 City School Supervision 

inations for License No. i, may be regarded as typical of 
the methods and standards of the board. ^ 

No examination system can be depended upon to select, 
with absolute accuracy, those best fitted for the service to 
which the examination pertains. A knowledge of the so- 
called professional subjects has come to be regarded as an 
essential element in the preparation of the teacher. And, 
while a difference of judgment might readily obtain as to 
the appropriateness of certain of the questions used in the 
written examinations, and their relationship to the method 
and aims of effective teaching, a knowledge of the prevail- 
ing methods and standards of American institutions for the 
training of teachers leads me to express general approval of 
the questions used in the recent examinations as fair tests 
of professional preparation, and confidence in them as a 
positive factor in the group of devices employed for the 
selection of fit teachers. 

For the reading and rating of the answer papers of the 
written examination it is the practise of the Board of Ex- 
aminers to employ, as assistants, a considerable number of 
principals and teachers in service. Such an expedient, how- 
ever necessary under the conditions, must be regarded as 
introducing numerous elements of unreliability; and steps 
should be taken for the reading and rating of these papers 
by persons not immediately connected with the school 
system. 

One other aspect of the whole scheme of formal written 
examinations has not received from the authorities of the 
school system the serious attention it deserves. This study 
does not attempt, with the evidence at hand, to do more 
than to emphasize the dangers arising from the system of 
cramming and coaching for examinations that has grown 
up in the city. This " forced " professional preparation is 
most frequently in the hands of individuals whose skill and 

^ See Appendix F, pp. 227 fif., for typical questions used in the written 
examinations for License No. i. These questions have been examined 
and weighed in detail as the basis for the conclusions here expressed. 



The Board of Examiners 105 

adroitness serve to vitiate the purposes of the examination. 
The situation becomes all the more aggravated when such 
preparation is attempted by those belonging to the active 
supervisory or teaching staff. 

Quite properly, the tests of eligibility and the written ex- 
aminations are supplemented by the oral and practical tests. 
In the case of License No. i, the relative value of the writ- 
ten to the oral and practical tests is shown by the following : 

Scope of Examination* 

"IV. The scope of the professional examination for License No. i, 
and the passing conditions therein, are as follows : 

— Minimum Required — 
Maximum Women Men 

Group I — Written Examination: Credits Jan., 191 2- June, 191 2 

(a) History and Principles of Education . 60 

(b) English (including Methods in English) 60 

(c) Methods of teaching 90 

Total, Group I 210 145 150 160 

Group II — Oral and Practical Tests: 

(d) Drawing ao 

(e) Physical Training 10 

(f) Music 10 

(g) Sewing (women only) 10 

(h) Oral English and Personality .... 20 14 14 15 

(i) Record 20 14 14 15 

Total, Group II "90 58 60 68 

Grand Total 300 210 216 228 

Since men are not examined in Item (g), one- fourth of the ratings 
received in Items (d), (e), and (f) will be added to the total in 
Group II. 

Written tests will not be included in Items (e) and (f). 

In Item (h) the applicant's use of English and general personal fit- 
ness for the position of teacher will be estimated. 

In Item (i) a rating of the applicant's character and record as a 
student and teacher will be given. Successful experience in teaching 
for one half-year or more will receive credit when proved by original 
documents. Experience in practise teaching, or in clerical work, will 
not receive credit. Substitute teachers in the New York City public 

* Circular of November 15, 1911. 



io6 



City School Supervision 



schools who have actually taught as substitutes for eighty days or more 
should, within five days following the examination, file their substitute 
licenses, properly filled out and certified. 

Each applicant must show in the written and oral examinations a 
satisfactory use of English and a satisfactory knowledge of the sub- 
jects embraced in the elementary school course." 

The following marking slip is a typical illustration of the 
general basis of the oral examinations: 

BOARD OF EXAMINERS 

Marking Slip 

Oral Examination f Assistant to Principal, Elementary Schools 



Date. 



Name. 



Candidate's Niunber 










Mark 


Out of 


Remarks 


Ability in teaching and supervi- 
sion as evidenced by official 
record and special reports . 

Ability in teaching and supervi- 
sion as evidenced by class- 
room test and answers to 
questions thereon .... 

Personality 




40 

40 
20 











Whatever limitations these oral examinations may have, 
and notwithstanding the numerous objections that have been 
raised on account of the influence of indefinite subjective 
standards of judgment of the examiners, a careful inquiry 
into the methods by which these oral examinations are con- 
ducted gives warrant for the judgment that the Board of 
Examiners has caused the oral examination system to be 
an important and valuable factor in the selection of candi- 
dates for the eligible lists. If any criticism were to be made, 
it would be against the leniency of the board in passing 
persons of doubtful personal and linguistic qualifications. 



The Board of Examiners 107 

The fact that there are in the schools at the present time 
so many teachers possessing an inadequate and imperfect 
command of Enghsh points not only to a weakness in the 
examination system, but also to a laxity in the supervision 
by the principals and district superintendents who permit 
the renewal of the licenses of these persons. 

Some detailed attention has been given to the class-room 
tests as applied to those qualifying for principal's license for 
elementary schools. This class-room test consists of two 
main parts: (a) A written criticism of a certain assigned 
class exercise, and (b) the conduct of a recitation upon 
which an examining officer, principal, district superintend- 
ent, or member of the Board of Examiners presents a writ- 
ten estimate. The candidate has no opportunity for any 
special preparation. Such a practical exercise can hardly 
be a valid test of either teaching or supervisory capacity. 
Not only is the test conducted under abnormal teaching con- 
ditions, but the standards of judgment applied are, in most 
instances, wholly unreliable measures of the candidate's real 
efficiency. For the important office of principal of an ele- 
mentary school such a teaching and supervisory test should 
be applied, but it should be continued over a sufficient period 
— a week at least — under more or less normal conditions, 
and be subjected to the critical judgment of those of dem- 
onstrated competency. 

THE GENERAL EFFICIENCY OF THE BOARD 

Aside from the City Superintendent of Schools, no 
agency related to the direction and control of the public 
school system has been the subject of criticism and contro- 
versy more than the Board of Examiners. This was an' in- 
evitable consequence of the revolutionary changes that came 
about with the establishment of the board in 1898, and es- 
pecially after the enlargement of its powers by the Revised 
Charter in 1901. Prior to 1898 each of the several school 
organizations now within the metropolitan area had its own 
methods for the certification and appointment of teachers. 



io8 City School Supervision 

Historically, no feature of the development of public edu- 
cation in the United States has offered a more difficult 
problem than that of removing the selection of teachers 
from the realm of personal, partisan, and political influence. 
New York has shared with the rest of the country, especially 
with the cities, the difficulties arising from this problem. 

The Board of Examiners has proved to be a most effec- 
tive instrumentality for the accomplishment of the principal 
ends for which it was created ; that is, to place the appoint- 
ment of teachers upon a merit basis, and thereby isolate the 
schools from the self-interest of individuals, classes, and 
parties. This judgment is expressed in spite of any of the 
inadequacies in the constitution and operation of the board 
indicated later. Any agency that has protected the teaching 
force, as has the Board of Examiners, from the influence of 
forces and motives wholly unrelated to efficiency is entitled 
to commendation. Unquestionably, mistakes have been 
made, and individual cases of injustice and maladjustment 
can be pointed out. But the fundamental policy of this 
board has contributed to the sound development of schools. 

On September 26, 191 1, the following questions were sub- 
mitted to each member of the Board of Examiners : 

1. What studies, during the past five years, have been 
made by the Board of Examiners, or by you, as an indi- 
vidual member of the board, of its organization, powers, 
duties, and methods, with a view to recommending possible 
improvements in the efficiency of the board ? 

2. (a) What recommendations have been made to the 
City Superintendent, to the Board of Superintendents, or 
to the Board of Education, based on such studies ? 

(b) What use was made of such studies and reports? 

(c) Are any such studies or reports on file? 

The carefully prepared replies to the above questions, 
when supplemented by other pertinent evidence, warrant 
the conclusion that the Board of Examiners has exercised 
its functions in a singularly effective and progressive man- 



The Board of Examiners 109 

ner. Since its establishment in 1898 this board has had to 
create an examination system which would enable the schools 
to have a sufficient number of teachers of actual or poten- 
tial efficiency. That the procedure of the board in dealing 
with the thousands of applicants for teachers' licenses has, 
in rare instances, resulted in the rejection of qualified candi- 
dates would perhaps be difficult to disprove ; that the same 
procedure has also resulted in the rejection of a multitude 
of unfit teachers would be equally difficult to disprove. The 
methods and results of the teaching staff in the schools of 
the city today undoubtedly are open to criticism. But the 
burden of this criticism cannot be shifted to the Board of 
Examiners. The peculiar political, social, and racial con- 
ditions obtaining in New York City have rendered the pub- 
lic schools peculiarly liable to party, class, and personal ex- 
ploitation. That the extent of this exploitation is as limited 
as it is may be ascribed to the resistance of the Board of 
Examiners. 

A study of the evolution of the methods and standards of 
the board indicates that it has devoted a large share of its 
energy and attention to the improvement of its methods 
and the elevation of its standards. No one of the agencies 
for school control has more consciously attempted to ad- 
just its performance to the changing needs of the school 
system. In practically every instance the examination re- 
quirements for the several kinds of licenses, as they have 
been developed, exhibit a decided trend in the direction of 
establishing higher and juster standards of qualification. 

CRITICAL STATEMENT 

Three items relative to the Board of Examiners call for 
special consideration : 

a. The Size of the Board 

The present Board of Examiners is too small to accom- 
plish in the most satisfactory manner the extensive and 



no City School Supervision 

divers duties now devolving upon it. For practical purposes 
there are but four active members — the City Superintend- 
ent, for obvious reasons, not being able to assume any ap- 
preciable share of the examination work. The enlargement 
of the board proposed in Recommendation IV (p. i8i) sug- 
gests a way for the extension and improvement of the activ- 
ities of the board. 

h. The Permanency of the Board 

One of the most forceful objections to any examination 
board, such as the Board of Examiners, centers in the ten- 
dency of such boards to become isolated from the actual 
working conditions of the institution to be served. The 
examination system tends to become an end in itself. While 
it is conceded that the general effectiveness with which the 
board has carried forward its work is marked, nevertheless, 
the plan of rotating membership described in Recommenda- 
tion IV would improve that effectiveness, for it would en- 
able the members of the Board of Examiners to be kept in 
closer and more vital contact with the schools and their 
teaching needs. 

c. The City Superintendent as the Dominating Member of 
the Board of Examiners 

No inconsiderable amount of the criticism of the Board 
of Examiners has been directed against the membership of 
the City Superintendent of Schools and his right to nomi- 
nate the members of the board. Careful consideration has 
been given to this important issue, and, while it is difficult 
with the means at hand to examine all of the questions 
raised, our survey and scrutiny of the methods of the board 
have convinced us that the membership of the City Super- 
intendent of Schools is desirable from the point of view of 
securing that very necessary correlation of the controlling 
agencies. The question of the dependency of the members 
of the board upon the City Superintendent for nomination. 



The Board of Examiners iii 

and consequently for appointment, does not appear to be of 
great moment. This power, in the hands of a selfish or 
autocratic superintendent, might prove to be dangerous. 
On the other hand, the great importance of the public 
schools in the civic economy and progress, together with 
the M'idespread public interest in all matters vitally affect- 
ing the welfare of the schools, presents a certain guarantee 
that the City Superintendent of Schools will be an indi- 
vidual whose own professional standing would compel the 
nomination of examiners having a single interest in the 
establishment and maintenance of high standards of quali- 
fication for teachers. A modern city superintendent of 
schools must, necessarily, have a jealous regard for the 
efficiency of the teaching staff. 

GENERAL SUMMARY 

It appears, from the more important of the foregoing 
considerations, that: 

(a) The Board of Examiners, by its methods and stand- 
ards, determines the character of the demands made upon 
the supervisory staff. 

(b) The Board of Examiners has a tremendous annual 
task in conducting the wide variety of examinations of 
many thousands of candidates for the teacher's license. 

(c) The methods and standards of the Board of Exam- 
iners have been such as to select the more fit of those pre- 
senting themselves for examination. 

(d) The Board of Examiners has sought constantly to 
adapt itself in a progressive way to the changing needs of 
the school system. 

(e) The constitution of the Board of Examiners so as 
to include the City Superintendent is to be desired. 

(f) The enlargement of the Board of Examiners would 
contribute to its effectiveness. 



112 



City School Supervision 



EXHIBIT III 

EXAMINATION, CERTIFICATION, AND APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS 

(Cities of 300,000 Population and Over; 





Examining Authority 


City 


Name 


Selection and 
Composition 


Number 


Term 
(Years) 


New York 


Board of Exami- 
ners 


Board of Educa- 
tion upon nomina- 
tion of City Superin- 
tendent 


4 and City Super- 
intendent 


6 


Chicago 


City Examiner 


Board of Educa- 
tion upon nomina- 
tion of City Superin- 
tendent 


I and assistants 


Perma- 
nent (see 
Sec. 6, 
Rules) 


Philadelphia 


City Superintend- 
ent ex officio 








St. Louis 


Committee of Ex- 
aminers 


City Superintend- 
ent, Assistant Super- 
intendents and Prin- 
cipals of high schools 
ex officiis and other 
principals or teachers 
selected by Superin- 
tendent 






Boston 


Board of Superin- 
tendents 


City Superintend- 
ent and Assistant Su- 
permtendents ex of- 
ficiis 






Cleveland 


City Board of 
School Examiners 


Board of Educa- 
tion 


3 


3 


Baltimore 


City Superintend- 
ent and Assistant 
Superintendents ex 
officiis 




7 


No rule 


Pittsburg 


Examining Board 


City Superintend- 
ent and Associate Su- 
perintendents ex of- 
ficiis with such others 
as Sup>erintendent 
may select and Board 
of Education ap- 
proves 






Detroit 


Committee on Teach- 
ers and Schools 


President of Board 
of Education 


5 with City Su- 
perintendent and 
other professional 
help as deemed nec- 
essary 





I References are to Sees., etc., in docu- 



The Board of Examiners 



113 



EXmBIT III 

EXAMINATION, CERTIFICATION. AND APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS 

(CmEs OF 300,000 Population and Over) 





Certification » 




Qualifications 


Citation 


Appointment > 


College or Uni- 
versity graduate 
with s years experi- 
ence, or state certifi- 
cate and 10 years 
experience 


City Charter, Sec. 
1089 


By City Super- 
intendent. Sec. 
1089 


By Board of Education 
from eligible lists, upon rec- 
ommendations of Board of Su- 
perintendents. Sec. 1090 


Left to Superin- 
tendent 


Rules of Depart- 
ment of Education, 
1910. Sec. 40 


By Board of 
Education (State 
School Law, Sec. 
134) 


By Board of Education 
from eligible lists, upon rec- 
ommendation of City Super- 
intendent and Committee on 
School Management. Sec. 10 




Handbook of 
Board of Education, 
1909-10. Rule 
XXIII 


By Board of 
Education. Rule 
XXIII 


By Board of Education 
from eligible list prepared by 
City Superintendent. Rule 




Rules and Char- 
ter of Board of Edu- 
cation, 19H. Rule 
44, Sec. I 




By Board of Education, 
upon recommendation of City 
Superintendent and Commit- 
tee on Instruction. Rule 41, 
Sec. II 




School Document 
No. 7, 1912. Rules 
of Committee, Ch. 
7, Sec. 136 


By Board of Su- 
perintendents. Ch. 
7, Sec. 138 


By School Committee, upon 
recommendation of City Su- 
perintendent. Ch. 6, Sec. los 


Two years of 
teaching experience 
and otherwise com- 
petent 


R. S. Ohio. Sec. 
7838 


By Board of Ex- 
aminers 


By Board of Education 
from eligible list, upon recom- 
mendation of City Superin- 
tendent 




Rules of Board of 
School Commission- 
ers, 1907. Art. VI 


By Board of Su- 
perintendents 


By Board of School Com- 
missioners upon recommen- 
dations of City Superintend- 
ents and Assistant Superin- 
tendents. Art. IX 




Rules and Regu- 
lations of the Board 
of Public Education, 
I0I3. Art. IX 




By Board of Education, 
upon recommendation of City 
Superintendent. Art. VIII 


The s must be 
members of the 
Board of Education 


Manual Board 
of Education, 1912- 
13. Rule 16 




By Board of Education, 
upon recommendation of 
Committee on Teachers and 
Schools. Rule 43 



ments referred to under "Citation" column. 



114 



City School Supervision 



EXHIBIT in 

EXAMINATION, CERTIFICATION, AND APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS 

(Cities of 300,000 Population and Over) 





Examining Authority 


City 


Name 


Selection and 
Composition 


Number 


Term 
(Years) 


Buffalo 


Board of School 
Examiners 


Mayor 


5. City Superin- 
tendent prescribes 
the subjects for the 
examinations but is 
not technically a 
member of the Board 


S 


San Francisco 


Board of Educa- 
tion* 


Mayor 


4 and the Super- 
intendent of the 
City and County of 
San Francisco 


4 


Milwaukee 


Committee on Ex- 
amination and Ap- 
pointment » 


President of Board 
of School Directors 


4 and President 
of Board of School 
Directors 


I 


Cincinnati 


Board of Exami- 
ners 


Board of Educa- 
tion 


3 


3 


Newark 


Board of Exami- 
ners 


City Superintend- 
ent ex officio; three 
assistant superin- 
tendents, and two se- 
lected by Board of 
Education 


6 


No limit 
fixed 


New Orleans 


Board of Directors 
or a Committee 


Popular election 


S 


4 


Washington 


Board of Exami- 
ners 


City Superintend- 
ent ex officio and two 
heads of departments 
from the schools for 
whites and two from 
the schools for blacks 
selected by Board of 
Education 


J and City Super- 
intendent for each 
of the two boards 


I 


Los Angeles 


Teachers Commit- 
tee, City Superin- 
tendent, Deputy Su- 
perintendent and As- 
sistant Superintend- 
ent ex ojjiciis 




3 members of 
Teachers Commit- 
tee and the 3 super- 
intendents as in 
column 3 


No limit 
fixed 


Minneapolis 


City Superintend- 
ent 









1 Conducts civil service examination to determine entrance to elementary and grammar grades; 
applicants writing these examinations must hold certificates valid under the state law. 



The Board of Examiners 



115 



EXHIBIT III 

EXAMINATION, CERTIFICATION, AND APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS 

(Cities of 300,000 Population and Over) 





Certification 




Qualifications 


Otation 


Appointment 


Citizen of Buf- 
falo 


City Charter, 
1896. Sees. 331-333 


By Chairman 
and Secretary of 
IBoard of Exami- 
ners. Sec. 339 


By Superintendent of Edu- 
cation from eligible list. Sec. 
330 




Rules of Board of 
Education, 1905. 
Sec. 14, Rule 9, p. 7 




By Board of Education, 
p. 6 


Members of 
Board of School Di- 
rectors 


Rules and regula- 
tions of Board of 
School Directors, 
.1911. p. 36 


By Committee 
on Examination 
and Appointment. 
P-36 


By Committee on Examina- 
tion and appointment upwn 
recommendation of City Su- 
perintendent subject to ap- 
proval of Board of School Di- 
rectors, p. 36 




Rules of Board of 
Education, 191 1, p. 
21 




By Board of Education 
upon recommendation of City 
Superintendent, pp. 13, 30 


Secretary to be an 
exi)erienced school 
man 


Rules of Board of 
Education. Rule 10 
(SSth Annual Re- 
port, 1910-11) 




By Board of Education on 
recommendation of Commit- 
tee on Instruction and Edu- 
cational Supplies and by them 
from an eligible list presented 
by City Superintendent, p. 
335 




Act 214, 1912. 
Sec. 72 


By Board of Di- 
rectors or a special 
committee. Sec. 72 


By Board of Directors on 
nomination of City Superin- 
tendent from eligible list. 
Sec. 72 


Heads of depart- 
ments in the respec- 
tive schools 


Handbook of 
Board of Education, 
1912. Organic Law. 
Sec. 6 


By Boards of Ex- 
aminers. Rule 20 


By Boards of Education 
upon recommendation of City 
Superintendent. Sec. 2 




_ Rules and regula- 
tions of city schools. 
Rules 47, 48, 49 (An- 
nual Report, 1905- 
06) 


See note (s). 
Rule 48 


By Board of Education 
upon recommendation of City 
Superintendent and Teachers 
Committee. Rule 47 




Rules and Regu- 
lations for the Gov- 
ernment of Schools. 
(Annual Report, 
1910) 


By President of 
Board of Educa- 
tion and Superin- 
tendent of Schools. 
Sec. 67 


By Board of Education 
upon recommendation of City 
Superintendent and Commit- 
tee on Education. Sec. 17 



' The actual examinations are conducted by the City Superintendents and their assistants, 
but the results must be presented to the Committee for approval. 



CHAPTER IX 

METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR DETERMIN- 
ING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 

THE PROBLEM^ 

ONE of the greatest issues confronting the public school 
system of the city is the maintenance of a competent 
and permanent teaching force in the face of social and other 
conditions that tend naturally to favor incompetence and 
to encourage impermanence. By far the greater propor- 
tion of the expenditures of the Department of Education 
is for the salaries of teachers. The organization and opera- 
tion of the school system must be such as to retain and to 
reward the fit, and to select and reject the unfit teachers. 
This work requires the highest form of educational skill on 
the part of supervisors, especially in this city, with its many 
thousands of teachers, its many grades of positions, and its 
many scales of compensation; for the supervisory staff 
exists, primarily, to establish and to elevate standards of 
teaching performances. It is, therefore, pertinent to scruti- 
nize the methods employed and the standards set up for de- 
termining the fitness of those who are to constitute the body 
of fully qualified teachers and supervisors. 

ELIGIBILITY FOR LICENSE AND FITNESS FOR TEACHING 

The tests applied by the Board of Examiners are tests 
of probable fitness. In reality, the work of this board con- 

^ Consult in this connection the excellent article by District Superin- 
tendent J. S. Taylor, "Measurement of Educational Efficiency," Edu- 
cational Review, vol. 44, p. 348 — November, 1912. 

116 



Determining Teaching Efficiency 117 

stitutes but the first step in the process of selection. The 
real fitness of teachers must be finally determined under 
conditions of actual service. 

The continuation of the selective process begun by the 
Board of Examiners, through the preparation of eligible 
lists, is provided for through the insurance of temporary 
licenses, v^hich are renewed without examination, in case 
the service of the holder is satisfactory to the City Super- 
intendent, for two successive years. At the close of the 
third year of continuous successful service the City Super- 
intendent is authorized to make the license permanent.^ 
In other words, the initial license granted to any teacher or 
principal is a probationary license, which does not become 
permanent until after three years of successful service. 
The responsibility of the Board of Examiners for the char- 
acter and fitness of the teaching force is thus, after ap- 
pointment, transferred to the supervisory staff — district 
superintendents, directors, and principals. The examiners 
and the supervisors become jointly responsible for those who 
acquire the important status represented by the permanent 
licenses. 

The following table (XIII, p. 119), showing the number 
of licenses renewed, number refused, and number made per- 
manent for the three years 1909, 1910, and 191 1, and also 
the number of teachers whose services were approved or dis- 
approved for the years 1909 and 19 10, furnishes the basis 
for conclusions that bear indirectly upon the performances 
of the Board of Examiners and the supervisory staff. 

From Table XIII it appears that a very few of the tem- 
porary licenses fail of renewal in due course. Roughly, 5 
per cent of these licenses are renewed a third time before 
being made permanent; one-half of i per cent of the li- 
censes are renewed four or more times. For the three years 
under consideration approximately only i per cent of those 
licensed had their permanent licenses refused. 

* Charter, sec. 1089. 



Ii8 City School Supervision 

Several assumptions may be brought forward in expla- 
nation of the above conditions : 

First: It may be assumed that the tests applied by the 
Board of Examiners were such as to select only those who 
were certain to prove successful. On the average the licensee 
has ninety-nine chances out of a hundred of securing a 
permanent license ; 

Second: It may be assumed that the standards of effec- 
tive service applied by the supervisory staff are not high, 
and thus permit practically all to reach the status of perma- 
nent tenure ; 

Third: It may be assumed that, with the assistance and 
under the stimulus of competent supervision, those of medi- 
ocre or less ability were trained and developed to a point 
justifying permanent retention; 

Fourth: It may be assumed that the demand for teachers 
so nearly approaches the available supply as to render neces- 
sary the permanent licensing of practically all of those ap- 
pointed from the eligible lists of the Board of Examiners ; 
or 

Fifth: It may be assumed that those who foresaw failure 
resigned, thereby not raising the question of final refusal 
to renew the license. 

An extended examination of the data of the past five 
years, relative to the renewal of License No. i, in connec- 
tion with the data of Table XIII, is sufficient to eliminate 
the fifth assumption. A certain limited force may be at- 
tached to the fourth assumption. The rapid growth of the 
school system has produced a demand for teachers that has 
taxed to the limit the available supply.^ That the third 

^ " Permit me to say further, and in conclusion, that in the light of 
our experience in sifting out the relatively fit from the absolutely unfit 
(both the fit and the unfit oftentimes presenting identical academic and 
professional credentials) nothing could be more disastrous — nothing 
could be more absurd — than to use the fact of a temporary dearth of 



Determining Teaching Eificiency 



119 



TABLE XIII 

Showing Licenses Renewed, Refused, and Made Permanent for the 
Three Years 1909-1910-1911, Inclusive; also Number of Teachers 
Whose Services Were Approved or Disapproved for the Years 
1910 and 1911^ 



Grade 



Training Schools: 

Critic 

Model Teacher 

First Assistant 

Assistant 

High Schools: 

Principal 

First Assistant 

Assistant 

Junior Teacher 

Elementary Schools: 

Principal 

Assistant to Principal . . . 

Head of Department . . . 

Graduating Class 

Promotion 

License No. i 

Kindergarten 

Drawing 

Direct, of Phys. Training 

Asst. Direct, of Phys. Training 

Music 

Sewing 

Cooking 

Shop Work 

German 

[ Physical Training 

Teacher of Deaf 

Inspector of Blind 

Inspector of Ungraded Classes 

Teacher of Ungraded Classes 

As. Teacher Ungraded Classes 

Inspector of P. S. Athletics . 

Asst. Inspect. P. S. Athletics 
Truant School: 

Principal 

Assistant Teacher 

Vocational School: 

Principal 



Totals 



1909 
X910 
1911 



Licenses Renewed and Made Permanent 



First 
Renewal 



8 

16 

9 

32 



S 

44 

347 

70 

68 

40 

94 

52 

4 

3.213 

3g6 

12 



14 
67 
46 
10 
14 
16 



16 



1,557 
1.367 
1,578 



Second 
Renewal 



17 

8 

33 

S 
SI 

341 
23 

66 
67 
28 
47 

3,337 

28s 

13 



IS 
70 
47 
9 
17 



1,680 
I,SI2 
1.338 



Thu-d 
Renewal 



191 



228 



Fourth 
Renewal 
and Over 



2S 



Made 
Perma- 
nent 



4 

32 

329 

3 

62 
24 
30 
29 

3,26s 

260 

14 



4,267 



1,273 
1,556 
1,438 



Re- 
fused 



Total 



26 

44 
26 
73 



14 
127 

1,040 
C8 

ig6 

133 

1 54 

128 

4 

io,oS9 

8S4 

39 



29 
43 
190 
140 
31 
46 
38 



14 

30 



I3,S9S 



4,614 
4,563 
4,418 



1910, Number of teachers whose services were approved 1,587 Disapproved, 162 

1911, Number of teachers whose services were approved 1,57s Disapproved, 180 

Totals 3,162 342 



' Compiled from Reports of City Superintendent of Schools and the Minutes of the Board of 
Superintendents. 



I20 City School Supervision 

assumption has a certain validity is borne out by the un- 
doubted efforts made by district superintendents and prin- 
cipals to prevent a teacher from becoming a complete fail- 
ure. In view of recognized limitations of all examination 
systems to select with accuracy those fit for efficient service, 
the second assumption, as to the standards whereby service 
is approved, requires attention. 

The renewal of temporary licenses of teachers and prin- 
cipals appointed for service is based upon the reports made 
to the City Superintendent by the several supervisory offi- 
cers. These reports presumably represent the result of a 
critical and complete examination of the performances of 
the holder of the license. The examinations upon which 
these reports are made are shown in Appendix G:^ (a) 
Elementary Schools; (b) High and Training Schools; 
(c) Special Teachers ; and (d) Principals and Assistants to 
Principals. 

Many hundreds of these reports for recent years, as filed 
in the office of the City Superintendent, were examined in 
detail. In addition, many personal inspections have been 
made of the methods used by district superintendents and 
principals in passing upon the qualifications of teachers 
whose licenses were to be renewed. On the basis of the 
evidence developed the following conclusions seem to be 
warranted : 

(a) That the reports of service for the renewal of tem- 
porary licenses are, in the great majority of cases, purely 
formal, on the part both of the principal " and the district 

teachers, due to ascertained and removable causes, as a pretext for a 
general letting down of the bars." (Examiner W. L. Hervey, Ninth 
Annual Report to the City Superintendent, p. 399.) 

^ See pp. 242 ff. for these forms. 

^ The by-laws of the Board of Education (sec. 43, sub. 6) contain 
the excellent provision that " Principals shall keep a record of all class 
inspections and examinations, of conferences with teachers. . . ." In 
not a single one of twenty-one elementary schools visited was I able to 
discover such a record which as to form or content would serve as a 



Determining Teaching EMciency 121 

superintendent. The terms " excellent," " good," " poor," 
" satisfactory," " unsatisfactory," representing, as they do, 
the general form in which the judgments are expressed, are 
too indefinite, vague, and subjective to have reliability. Tlie 
multitude of duties that must be performed by the district 
superintendent practically preclude any but very brief and 
superficial examinations of the methods or the success of 
teachers as represented by the progress of the pupils.^ 

(b) That these reports should be in such form as to 
oblige both the principal and the district superintendents to 
present detailed positive evidence in support of the renewal 
of licenses. The reports should also show the number and 
duration of visits and the variety of work inspected, to- 
gether with other pertinent supplementary evidence. 

(c) That the supervisory authorities should aim to unify 
the standards according to which the work of probationary 
teachers is approved. It is plainly evident that in various 
parts of the city radically diverse standards are employed 
by supervisory officers in determining the renewal of a 
teacher's license. 

(d) That the approval of the first year of service should 
rest entirely with the principal, or, in the case of teachers 
of special branches, with the director; that the second re- 
newal should be based upon a careful examination of the 



basis for making a reliable report upon the work of the teachers. In 
many instances the principal apparently had no conception of what 
such a record might contain. These principals preferred to make their 
estimate of the teacher on the basis of a "general impression." In other 
instances principals frankly said that they had no time for the record- 
ing of the results of their observations of the teacher's work. 

* Six district superintendents permitted me to accompany them dur- 
ing times when they were engaged in passing upon teachers whose 
licenses were up for renewal. In some instances a whole day was de- 
voted to this, and in others a half-day. With almost no exception a 
superintendent's decision was founded upon a very brief visit, of from 
five to fifteen minutes, to the class room. Sometimes, though not al- 
ways, this inspection was supplemented by a brief conference with the 
principal. 



122 City School Supervision 

teacher's work by the district superintendent ; that the third 
and final renewal should be made as a result of an inspec- 
tion of the teacher's work by an independent inspector ; ^ 
that the recommendation of the division superintendent, as 
now provided for — since it is by the condition of things 
purely formal — be eliminated. 

Only after the work of those holding temporary licenses 
Is subjected to a closer and more rigid scrutiny than now 
obtains, and only after there is a greater centering of indi- 
vidual responsibility for approval of probationary work, 
will the fitness and competency of those who become mem- 
bers of the permanent teaching staff be fairly guaranteed. 



APPROVAL OF SERVICE AS FIT AND MERITORIOUS 

The relation of compensation to quality of service has 
been, and will continue to be, one of the perplexing issues 
confronting those immediately responsible for the improve- 
ment of the teaching corps. Beginning with the passage 
of the Ahearn Law (1899) an endeavor has been made by 
legislative measures, the Davis Law (1900) and the Grady 
Law (191 1 ), to establish such graduated schedule of com- 
pensation as seems to be consistent with grade, quality, and 
duration of service. It is not proposed here to enter into 
any discussion of a difficult, and still unsettled, question of 
the proper compensation for the various classes of teachers 
in the different grades of schools. It has, however, been 
considered to be within the immediate responsibility of the 
Inquiry to pass upon certain general practises which vitally 
influence the workings of the salary schedules. 

Prior to January i, 191 2, the salaries of principals and 

* It is contemplated that the proposed Bureau of Investigation and 
Appraisal contain a certain number of individuals, whose time shall be 
spent in such service as is herein indicated. See Recommendation IIT, 
p. 179- 



Determining Teaching Efficiency 123 

teachers were based upon the graduated minima estabHshed 
by the so-called Davis Law and incorporated in the charter.^ 

This law provided that no one of the specified members 
of the supervisory or teaching staff in elementary schools 
should receive a salary greater than that fixed for the sev- 
enth year of service, nor for the tivelfth year of service, 
" unless and until the service of any such member shall have 
been approved, after inspection and investigation, as fit and 
meritorious by a majority of the Board of Superintendents/' 
This law also provided that no member of the supervisory 
and teaching staff of any high or training school should re- 
ceive a salary greater than that fixed for the fourth year of 
service, nor a salary greater than that fixed for the nijith 
year of service, until a similar approval of service as fit and 
meritorious had been made. 

The theory of the Davis Law was that salaries should be 
regulated by merit, grade taught, length of service, and ex- 
perience in teaching. 

The salary schedule adopted by the Board of Education 
on May 17 and May 24, 191 1, which became the basis of 
the amendment to the Davis Law, as incorporated into the 
charter (Chapter 902, Laws of 1911), besides readjusting 
and equalizing the salaries for men and women, emphasized 
the principle of merit by providing that no teacher in an 
elementary school should receive a salary greater than that 
fixed by the third year of service, nor a salary greater than 
that fixed for the sijirth year of service, nor a salary greater 
than that fixed for the ninth year of service, nor a salary 
greater than that for the tzvelfth year of service, nor a 
salary greater than that fixed for the fifteenth year of ser- 
vice, until the service of such teachers shall have been ap- 
proved as fit and meritorious by a majority of the Board of 
Superintendents.^ 

The forms for the special reports on the work of elemen- 

* Charter, sec. 1091. 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, sec. 65, subsec. 14. 



124 City School Supervision 

tary school teachers, whose service is to be approved for 
advance in salary, are given in Appendix H.^ The general 
criticisms already presented of the methods and standards of 
supervisory officers in preparing reports upon the work of 
teachers whose licenses are to be renewed will also hold as 
applying to the approval of service as " fit and meritorious." 
The relatively few disapprovals of service (see Table XIII, 
p. 119) can scarcely be interpreted as signifying a uni- 
formly high level of teaching performance. On the con- 
trary, it means, in all probability, the employment of a 
very lenient standard by approving officers. 

THE RATED EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 

As a logical development of the machinery for the con- 
trol and improvement of the teaching staff there has been 
built up a more or less elaborate system of regular reports 
upon the performances of teachers. The principal forms 
upon which these ratings are recorded are presented in the 
following pages. 

a. Annual Rating of Teachers by District Superintend- 

ent, p. 125. 

b. Semiannual Rating of Teachers by Principal, p. 126. 

c. Annual Rating of Principals by District Superintend- 

ent, p. 127. 

d. Annual Rating of Assistants to Principals by District 

Superintendent, p. 128. 

The ratings presented on these forms by the several 
supervisory officers become a part of the teacher's perma- 
nent record. 

Certain observations have already been made with regard 
to the ratings of elementary school principals by district 
superintendents.^ As a means of studying the general 

* See pp. 248 fF. 

* See Chapter V, The District Superintendents, p. 52. 



Determining 



Teaching Efficiency 125 



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Determining Teaching EiHciency 



127 



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128 



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TABLE XIV 
Ratings of Teachers by District Superintendents and Principals Compared (June, igii) 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 





RjVTINGS of teachers BY DISTRICT SUPERDJTENDENTS i 








RATINGS OF TEACHERS BY PRINCIPALS' 




"'Ml 


3 

District 
Supt. 


No. of 
Teacli- 


No. Not 


Instruction 


DlSCn-LlNE 


18 

No. 
Rated 
A-A 


19 

No. 
Rated 
A-A 


Instruction 


Discipline 


33 
No. Not 


34 

No. of 
Teach- 


3S 


Bor. 


School 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


No. 


- 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 
No. 


20 


- 


" 


23 


24 


25 
No. 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 
Not 


32 

No. 


Prin. 












A 


B + 


B 


C 


D 


Rated 


A 


B+ 


U 


c 


D 


Rated 


A+ 


13 + 










A 


B + 


B 


c 


D 


Rated 


Rated 








M 


A 


Na 


SS 


, 


6 


21 


26 








54 


13 


27 


14 






S4 


6 


10 


II 


25 


33 






59 


18 


17 


24 








59 


2 


6i 


J 


M 


B 


Wb 


39 




4 




17 








39 


4 




17 


2 




39 


4 




29 


5 




2 






42 




S 


9 


2 








I 




3 


M 


C 


Wb 






1 


'I 


II 










I 


27 


II 






39 


I 


7 


14 




3 








il 


7 


32 


4 

















M 


D 


Qc 


66 


8 


II 


28 


19 








58 


21 


20 


17 






S8 


II 


17 






23 


I 










18 


21 


I 






68 


3 


71 




M 


E 


Vd 






4 


33 


12 








49 


13 


27 


9 






■•? 


3 


5 


s 


29 


20 


I 








10 


30 


14 


I 








I 


S6 




M 


F 


Re 


37 


I 


16 


10 


10 


... 






36 




9 




I 




36 


15 


13 


IS 


12 


5 








32 




12 


4 










I 


33 


6 


M 


G 


Re 






9 




2 








27 




7 


2 










12 


15 


15 


2 










22 




2 








32 




32 




M 


H 


Re 


SS 


6 


20 


13 










49 




9 


17 


I 




49 


20 


27 


27 


12 










57 


29 


7 


20 


I 






57 


3 


60 


8 


M 


I 


Tf 


48 


1 


2 




9 








47 




32 


7 






47 


2 


4 


4 


32 










44 


10 


24 


7 


3 






44 




44 


9 


M 
M 


^K 


Sg 
Ah 


8 
69 




24 


30 


5 








66 


49 


7 


5 






66 


"24 


■48 


'40 


22 










'1 


■.58 


xo 


9 








72 


3 


75 




M 


L 


Ah 








13 










22 


17 


I 


4 






22 


3 


5 




II 


II 










10 




10 












28 


12 


M 


M 


Pi 


SO 




9 


21 


20 








SO 


II 




21 






50 


9 


44 


44 


II 


4 








S9 


44 


II 


4 








59 




59 


13 


M 


N 


Oj 


5 






3 


2 








5 




4 


I 






S 




2 


2 


4 


I 








7 




I 










7 




7 




M 











3 


9 










17 


5 


10 


2 








2 


4 




13 










21 


14 


2 


I 






4 


17 




21 




M 


P 


Pi 




2 


I 


13 










20 


I 


12 


7 






20 


t 


4 


4 


17 


3 








-;! 


5 




3 










2 


26 


16 


M 


Q 


Vd 






4 


43 


S 








52 


29 


21 


2 






52 


4 


I 


I 


44 


II 








56 


31 




9 








56 


I 


S7 


17 


M 


$ 


Pi 


49 




II 


24 


13 


I 






49 


12 


25 


II 


I 




49 


II 


20 


21 


25 










54 


29 


10 










34 


3 


57 


i3 


M 


S 


Wb 






7 


IS 


IQ 








32 


7 


15 


10 






32 


7 


12 




15 










39 


20 


4 








4 


35 




39 


19 


M 


T 


Wb 









23 


12 








36 


I 


23 


12 










4 


4 


20 


13 








37 


4 




14 


I 






H 


I 


38 




M 


U 


Uk 


46 




4 


34 


5 








43 


IS 


25 


3 






43 


4 


21 


21 


23 


2 








46 


25 




5 








46 


3 


49 


21 


M 


V Tf 


41 




I 




10 








39 


17 


12 


10 








^ 




27 


10 










19 


4 


14 








37 


2 


39 


22 




868 






456 


234 


6 





837 


283 


349 


200 


s 





837 


136 


2S6 


341 


300 


178 


4 





922 


440 


279 


186 


9 





8 


914 


27 






Per Cent 






16.8 


545 


28. 








33.8 


41.7 


23.9 










31. 


37. 


43-3 


19.3 


■4 






4S.I 


30.5 


20.4 


I- 














Bx 


A 


Ba 






J 


8 


14 








24 


4 


12 


8 






24 


2 


4 


4 


13 


7 






24 


9 


13 


2 








24 


4 


28 


23 


Di 


B 


Ba 




6 


3 


36 


34 








73 


12 


33 








73 


3 


24 


25 


35 












40 


19 


27 


















C 


Ba 


ss 






22 


31 








53 


5 




20 






S3 




13 


13 


3S 


13 












23 


12 














25 


Bx 


D 


Ba 


63 




2 


41 


14 


2 






59 




42 


II 






59 


2 


14 


IS 


30 


II 


2 






64 




31 


14 


I 






64 


2 


66 


26 


Bx 


E 


Cb 


75 




I 




SI 


I 






71 




25 








71 


I 


4 


4 


33 


32 


I 




70 




31 


27 


4 






70 




76 


27 


Tot 
Per 




30! 


.". 


8 

2-9 


44-6 


144 
51-4 


3 


° 


280 


35 

12.5 


SO. 


105 
37. S 


° 


.".. 


280 


8 
2.9 


59 
19.3 


61 


152 
49.8 


89 
29.2 


3 


° 


305 


33-1 


2T4 


82 
26.g 


S 
1.6 


° 


° 


305 


.". 


317 




Cent 




B 


A 


Da 


19 






2 


17 






19 




2 


17 






19 




2 


3 


8 


8 






19 


2 


1 


8 








19 




19 


28 


B 


B 


Eb 


44 


4 




20 


20 








40 




22 




2 




40 




15 


21 


II 


12 


I 






*^ 


IS 


IS 


14 


I 






45 




45 


29 


B 


C 


Fc 






3 


12 










15 




9 








IS 


2 


I 
















I 


9 
















30 


B 


D 


Eb 


38 






17 










33 




17 








33 




5 




7 




2 






43 


5 


5 


30 


2 


I 




43 




43 


31 


B 


E 


Eb 






I 


20 


IS 








36 


I 


19 








36 


I 




20 


7 


13 








40 


17 


12 


II 








40 




40 


32 


B 


F 


Fc 






5 




25 


I 






31 


5 




25 


I 




31 


5 


4 


II 


4 


20 








35 


4 


I 








4 


31 




35 


33 


B 


G 


Eb 


















17 






9 






17 








5 
















13 














34 


B 


H 


Gd 






4 


24 


4 








32 


4 


23 


5 






32 


4 


9 


9 












36 


9 


21 


6 








36 




36 


35 


B 


I 


le 






3 


19 










30 


5 


13 


12 






30 


3 






17 


13 


I 






37 


12 




9 








37 




37 


36 


B 


J 


le 




I 


3 


9 


I 








13 


2 


10 


I 






13 


2 


J 
















3 


13 
















37 


B 


K 


le 


















19 


7 


9 


3 






19 


5 


















13 


9 
















18 


B 


L 


Fc 










31 








42 


17 










42 


7 


II 




28 


9 








48 


30 


16 


2 








48 




48 


39 


B 


M 


le 






I 


3 


I 








5 


I 


2 


2 






5 


I 


I 


I 


3 










5 




I 


I 


I 






5 




5 


40 


B 


N 


le 


34 


2 


6 




10 








32 


7 


IS 


10 






32 


5 


S 


7 


21 


10 








38 


II 


14 


7 








32 




38 




B 





le 


45 


I 


17 




9 








44 


17 


10 


17 






44 


13 


14 


19 


24 










49 


17 


12 










49 




49 


42 


B 


P 


Eb 


49 


3 


2 


20 


23 


I 






46 


12 


13 


21 






46 


2 


29 


30 


13 


10 








53 


30 


10 


13 








S3 


2 


55 


43 




Q 


le 






7 


" 


5 






23 


14 


5 


4 






23 


7 


15 




13 


I 








29 




5 










29 


I 


30 


44 




500 


23 




2IO 




2 







oR 

















211 




^ 















J 


10 






560 




Per Cent 




14-3 


44. 


41-3 


■4 






20.6 


37.1 




.6 






1 1.9 


26.8 


33.2 


379 


28.'2 


•7 






35.S 




3I.I 


■7 


■2 












Q 


A 


Ka 


41 


2 




19 


20 








39 




25 


13 






39 




25 






3 






41 


29 


g 










41 








Q 


B 


Ka 


10 






3 


7 












4 








10 






13 


6 


3 
3 








It 


5 
13 


6 


3 








22 






46 












































Q 


D 


Lb 


15 




3 


2 


10 








IS 


3 


2 


10 






13 


3 


7 






I 








17 


9 


7 










17 


2 


19 


iR 


Q 


E 


Lb 


18 






10 










18 




10 










2 


17 


17 


3 


2 








22 




3 


I 












22 




Q 


F 


Lb 




I 




7 


17 








24 




7 


17 






24 




3 


5 


7 










30 


3 


6 


21 


















G 


Lb 


33 




2 


17 


14 








33 


2 


17 


14 






33 


2 


23 


25 


12 


I 








38 


23 


12 


I 








38 




38 


SI 


Q 


H 




51 


2 




40 


9 








49 




40 


9 






49 






32 


15 


3 








50 


30 


14 


6 








SO 


I 






Q 


I 


Lb 


S8 


2 


5 


27 


24 








S6 


4 




24 








4 


37 


37 


29 










67 


37 


29 


I 








67 


I 




S3 


Q 


J 




35 


' 


5 


14 


'' 








34 


3 


13 








34 


5 


17 






4 








40 


17 


19 


4 








40 


I 


41 


54 




302 




18 






Q 











122 








J_ 


J 




112 










337 






J's 






Q 


337 




342 




Per Cent 




6.1 


50. 


43-9 








S.8 


52.7 


41-5 








5.8 


51.3 


55.2 


33.2 


11.6 










SS.2 


32. 












R 


A Ma 


19 






14 


5 








19 


S 


9 


s 






19 




3 


14 


4 


S 








23 


3 












23 








R 


B Ma 






4 


13 










19 


s 




13 








4 


5 


6 












23 


7 


















56 


R 


C Ma 


8 






4 


2 












I 


3 












4 




2 








8 




I 










8 




8 




R 


D Ma 


6 






3 


3 








6 


I 


2 


3 






6 




I 


I 


2 










6 




2 










6 




6 


58 


R 


E Ma 


28 




3 


16 


9 








28 


3 


14 








28 


I 




6 












35 




II 










35 












16 






■2 


3 








16 


7 


7 


2 








I 


5 


5 




2 








19 




10 


3 








19 




19 


60 








10 


62 







96 












96 






36 
31.6 












114 


24 


49 


41 
36. 








114 




114 




Per Cent 






10.4 


64.6 


25 


...... 


.6,1 


,15.8 


78. T 






8.3 


15-8 




27 8 


















Grand Totals . . 


2,o6S 


84 


24s 


1,000 


728 


11 


1.984 


4S8 


865 


05? 


8 




1,984 


226 


68s 


80Q 


926 


480 


II 






2,235 








18 


I 


iS 






2,282 










12-3 


50.4 


30.7 


.u|... 




23-1 


43.6 


32.9 


.4 






H.4 


30.6 


36.2 


41.4 


21.9 


.5 






42.7 


32.9 


23. S 


.8 


■' 













HIGH SCHOOLS 



J 








RATINGS BY 


DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS 








RATINGS BY PRINCIPALS 


= 


3 
District 


4 ■ 

No. of 
Teach- 


5 
No. Not 


Instruction 


Discipline 


19 

No. 
Rated 


No. 
Rated 


Instruction 


Discipline 


35 

No. 
Not 


36 

No. of 
Teach- 


37 


Bor. School 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Not 


No. 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


iS 
No. 




22 


23 


24 


23 


26 
Not 


Z 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


^n, 


N^o^. 


Prin. 






u. 












u 


Rated 


Rated 


A 


B + 


B 


C 


D 


Rated 


A-A 


A-A 


A 


B-t- 


B 


C 


D 




Rated 


A 
64 


B-l- 
19 


B 
14 


C 


D 


Rated 


Rated 


Rated 


ers 




M 


A 


Xa 


99 




12 


25 


54 


3 




I 




12 


24 


58 


I 




95 


12 


47 


52 


32 


IS 








99 


2 


97 


I 


100 


61 






Xa 


87 










.S 










46 


75 






13s 




57 


60 


27 


42 


3 






132 






37 


5 






134 




135 














39 


3 






85 


6 


37 


38 


4 




85 


6 


23 


31 


32 




4 






8s 


32 


29 




4 






8S 


I 






Bx 


A 


Xa 


117 




7 


48 


60 


2 






117 


7 


48 


62 






117 


7 


30 


41 


45 


29 








IIS 


38 


40 


34 


3 






I'S 


3 


iiS 


64 


B 


B 


Xa 
Xa 


123 




9 


43 


66 


3 






121 






66 


2 




121 








42 


35 


I 






121 


37 


48 


36 








121 


I 


133 


6S 


B 


C 


Xa 


OS 








62 


I 






128 


6 




73 


4 




128 




6, 






17 








I2S 


82 






2 




I 


124 


3 


127 
















2 








5 


25 


64 






94 


S 


47 


59 


29 


3 








91 


51 


28 


11 








91 


4 


9S 






A 


Xa 






































































"^ 


B 


Xa 


12 




..". 


^° 


9 








40 


' 


3 


2S 
9 






40 


' 


30 




8 


' 








41 
15 


35 


6 


"i 








1*5 




41 
15 


69 




Xa 


37 




3 


16 


17 


I 


_11 


— :_ 


37 


3 


16 


18 






37 


3 


6 


8 


21 


5 


I 






35 


12 


16 


7 








35 


3 


37 


70 


Per Cent 




S77 


13 


S8 


298 


487 
S6.4 


20 


863 


60 


298 




15 





864 


58 




406 


278 


166 


9 





2 


859 


431 










3 


838 


IS 


S76 

















2-3 








6.9 


34.5 


S6.8 


1.8 






6.7 


40.2 


47.3 


32.4 


19-3 


'■ 








50.2 


27.4 




1.6 


■4 













the district superintendent rates teachcr^onrl a w'.r^,!?"""^'"?' '^"<' ""e district superintendent in any particular school tail to agree because — (a) the special t 

ferred to another school during the first term The nri^n;"f '1° " ^'. '">y time during the period; consequently, in his annual report which is submitted in June, 

'>; prmcipai rates twice a year, in February and in June, all teachers who have been in his school during each tcr 



: always rated together with the other teachers by the dis 
I teacher rated in a particular school who has resigned 01 



Determining Teaching Efficiency 129 

character of these ratings as measures of teaching efficiency, 
the data of Table XIV were assembled. This table shows 
the ratings of elementary and high school teachers as made 
by district superintendents and principals in June, 191 1. 
It is evident that the ratings of all of the teachers in the 
school system could not be included; therefore, by an arbi- 
trary method of selection, every tenth elementary school 
and every other high school in the several boroughs were 
selected. 

An examination of Table XIV brings to light certain im- 
portant facts: 

First: The insignificantly few teachers who are regarded 
by principals and district superintendents as rendering 
non-meritorious service. Of the 1984 elementary school 
teachers rated by district superintendents, but 11 (.6 of i 
per cent) were rated as non-meritorious in discipline. Of 
the 2235 elementary school teachers rated by principals, but 
II (.5 of I per cent) were rated as non-meritorious in in- 
struction; of the 2217 teachers rated on discipline, but 19 
(.9 of I per cent) were regarded as non-meritorious. But 
one teacher out of these 2217 was rated as wholly deficient 
in discipline. A similar situation exists with the ratings of 
high school teachers. 

Second: The wide variation between the ratings of prin- 
cipals and the ratings of district superintendents cannot be 
passed by without mention. The tendency seems to be for 
the district superintendent, as a matter of form, to dis- 
count the ratings given teachers by principals. 

The figures presented in colunms 18 and 19 (elementary 
schools), and columns 19 and 20 (high schools), bear 
directly upon this point. In these columns is recorded the 
number of teachers rated by the district superintendents and 
the principals, respectively, as A in discipline and A in 
instruction. 

In 23 Manhattan schools, 31 per cent of the teachers 
were rated A-A by their principals. The district superin- 



130 City School Supervision 

tendents so rated but 16.2 per cent of the teachers. In 5 
schools in the Borough of The Bronx, principals rated 59 
teachers as A-A, whereas the district superintendents re- 
duced this number to 8. In 17 Brooklyn schools, the 149 
A-A teachers, in the estimation of the principal, were re- 
duced to 57 by the district superintendents. In 10 schools 
in the Borough of Queens, 173 teachers were rated A-A by 
the principal; but one-tenth of this number were so rated 
by the district superintendent. In the case of the high 
schools this variation is all the more marked. Of the 877 
teachers rated in 10 high schools in the city, 345 (40.2 per 
cent) were rated A-A by the principals. But one-sixth only 
of this number (58) were rated as A-A by the district 
superintendent. 

Third: The very wide variation between the quality of 
service of teachers of the different elementary schools, and 
high schools also, as represented by the ratings of the prin- 
cipals of these schools, must be accounted for either by dif- 
ference in standards or difference in principals. In any 
event, the exhibition of Table XIV is such as to raise the 
question as to whether the rating system as now pursued 
affords any sound and just basis for according salary 
increases. 

Fourth: The distinction between " instruction " and " dis- 
cipline " is purely arbitrary and artificial. To an impartial 
judge the founding of a rating scheme for the teaching 
force of a metropolitan school system upon such a tradi- 
tional convention as this is ample evidence that the super- 
visory authorities have not assumed a scientific attitude of 
mind toward the complicated teaching process. 

The general conclusions as to the existing methods and 
standards for determining " fit and meritorious " service 
are that there is no method other than that of the personal 
idiosyncrasy of supervisors, and that there are no standards 
that bear intimate and valid relation to the quality of service 
rendered. 



Determining Teaching Eificiency 131 



SUPERIOR MERIT 

The salary schedules that became effective on January i, 
19 1 2, in accordance with the revision made under the so- 
called Equal Salary Law, introduced another important fac- 
tor into the question of determining the relative fitness of 
the members of the permanent teaching force of high 
schools. This new factor is now familiarly known as " su- 
perior merit." ^ 

It is not proposed to engage in a discussion of a question 
that is still of a controversial nature. However, it is within 
the reasonable province of this study to express unqualified 
approval of the fundamental principle involved in the su- 
perior merit provisions, and also to express the judgment 
that its careful application will probably result in a more 
intelligent and more just procedure to be followed in ap- 
proving the service of teachers for renewal of license, and 
in determining service that is " fit and meritorious." 

^ " No one shall advance beyond the salary of the ninth year unless, 
after investigation and inspection, he is declared, on the report of a 
committee consisting of an Associate City Superintendent, a District 
Superintendent, and a principal, by a majority vote of all the members 
of the Board of Examiners (the District Superintendent and principal 
having a right to vote), to be a teacher of superior merit. 

" No one shall advance beyond the salary of the twelfth year unless, 
after investigation and inspection, he is declared, on the report of a 
committee consisting of an Associate City Superintendent, a District 
Superintendent, and a principal, by a majority vote of all the members 
of the Board of Examiners (the District Superintendent and principal 
having a right to vote), to be a teacher of superior merit." (Board 
of Education — By-laws — Supplement, sec. 65, sub. 17, p. 11.) 



132 City School Supervision 



FORMS FOR RATING TEACHING EFFICIENCY 

Superior Merit, 191 1 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

The City of New York 

High School 

191 

Mr. William H. Maxwell, 

Chairman, Board of Examiners. 

Dear Sir: 

We, the iindersigned committee appointed to report upon the claims of teachers in the 
above high school to be adjudged teachers of " superior merit," after the gth and after the 
12th salary year, beg leave to present the following report upon 

r Assistant \ t Vi f 
\ First Assistant / 

who is in the year of High School service: 

(Ninth or subsequent) 

1. (a) Describe the results of this teacher's work diuing the past three years in 
advancing his students in the subject or subjects he teaches. 

(b) State the data on which you base your answer, giving in general terms results 
of his pupils' examinations, proportion of his pupils promoted, extent to which such pro- 
moted pupils sustained themselves in the advanced work. In case of poor results, state 
any modifying circumstances that should be taken into consideration. 

2. Give the strong and the weak points of the claimant's method of conducting a 
lesson as to the following: 

(a) Teaching new matter. 

(b) Teaching students how to study (including method of attacking the prob- 
lems peculiar to the teacher's subject). 

(c) Drill (fixing in mind points already taught). 

(d) Interest of entire class. 

3. (a) Success in rapid advancement of bright pupils. Give details, 
(b) Success in bringing up backward pupils. Give details. 

4. Describe h influence on students as to the development of habits as to 
Honor Orderhness Self-rehance Self-control 
Courtesy Good physical posture 



Determining Teaching Efficiency 133 

5. (a) Describe the teacher's attitude toward the pupils, 
(b) The pupils' attitude toward the teacher. 

6. (a) Does the teacher maintain and increase his proficiency in subject-matter? 

If so, specify the means. 

(b) Is he still improving as a teacher? 

(c) In what respects? 

7. Characterize the teacher's habitual use of the English language. State defects, 

if any. 

8. Accuracy in keeping records and making reports. 

9. State any notable deficiencies in personal habits or in temperament and disposi- 
tion (including readiness to cooperate with the principal and with other teachers in the 
work of the school). 

10. State any service he has rendered to the school or to its students outside of 
class-room work. 

{To be answered only in case of First Assistants.) 

11. Describe the results of the First Assistant's work in 

(a) organizing and unifying the work of Assistant Teachers in h subject. 

(b) influence in methods of teaching. 

(c) ability in the performance of executive and administrative assignments. 

Other comments. 

Date 191 

Date 191 

Date 191 



Principal. 
District Superintendent. 
Associate City Superintendent. 

Pursuant to section 65 of the by-laws of the Board of Education, declaration of this 

claimant as a teacher of superior merit for the year of service as 

assistant . , . high school c .. \. was made l ^i. t. j 

r- . ■ . ^ teacher m a . . . , , for teachers , , ..,1. u by the Board 

first assistant traimng school has been withheld •' 

of Examiners. 

Date: 



Secretary Board of Examiners. 



134 (^'^^y School Supervision 

It is certain that the comprehensive special report on 
the work of high school teachers who became subject to 
the provisions of the superior merit requirements reflected 
in a striking manner the widely divergent standards exist- 
ing among principals of high schools as to what consti- 
tuted conspicuous performance.^ 

The New York high schools will not have superior merit 
teachers until New York principals have genuine superior 
merit standards.^ 



GENERAL SUMMARY 

It appears, from the more important of the foregoing 
considerations, that: 

(a) The determination of the fitness or unfitness of 
teachers for continuance and promotion in the school system 
represents the chief task of the supervisory staff and tlie 
best test of its service to the schools. 

(b) The certainty with which the initial probationary 
license is renewed to permanency may be largely accounted 

* These divergent standards have become well recognized during the 
numerous discussions that have been developed since the application of 
the principles of superior merit. My own personal evidence upon this 
point was gathered at a meeting of the High School Principals' Asso- 
ciation, at which the principals themselves discussed the elements that 
should enter into the superior merit. These elements varied from that 
of the number of pupils of a teacher who passed the Regents' Exami- 
nations to that of mere subjective impression of the teacher's worth in 
the school room. See also the Official Bulletin of the High School 
Teachers' Association (April-May, 1912) for a series of interesting dis- 
cussions of what constitutes the teacher of superior merit. 

^ Attendance upon several sessions of the Board of Examiners dur- 
ing which superior merit cases were being determined showed the large 
importance of the annual and semiannual ratings of teachers. One of 
the weakest points in the first application of the principle of superior 
merit, during the early part of 191 1, consisted in basing this new stand- 
ard of teaching attainment very largely upon the already existing, but 
inadequate and unreliable, system of rating teachers. 



Determming Teaching Efficiency 135 

for by the formality that characterizes the inspections and 
reports upon service. 

(c) The approval of service as " fit and meritorious " 
does not depend upon thorough and impersonal inspections 
necessary for obtaining any true measure of a teacher's 
efficiency. 

(d) The means and methods for the regular annual and 
semiannual ratings of teachers and principals are not such 
as to produce results commensurate with the labor involved 
or calculated to raise the level of teaching performance 
within the schools. 

(e) The principle of " superior merit " for teachers in 
high schools introduced by the salary legislation of 191 1 
is a valid one, capable of serviceable extension to the 
teachers in elementary schools. 



CHAPTER X 

THE RATING OF TEACHING EFFICIENCY IN 
OTHER CITIES 1 

THE well-defined and noteworthy movement of the 
present day aiming to select the teaching staff of the 
public schools according to standards of personal fitness 
and professional preparation and to maintain this staff on 
a basis of meritorious performance finds its best illustra- 
tion in the public school systems of our larger cities. Not- 
withstanding conspicuous exceptions, it is here that the re- 
moval of teachers from self-seeking influences, whether of 
a personal, party, or partisan nature, has come to be re- 
garded as an essential condition for educational efficiency. 
This freedom from such external interference is, however, 
but one of the conditions for this efficiency. Others are the 
devising of plans for the more accurate determination of 
the relative working power of individual teachers in service, 
and the organization of supervisory measures for the better- 
ment of the service of teachers, individually and collectively. 
The following general propositions represent, it is be- 
lieved, the primary factors of the major problem of teach- 
ing efficiency as related to supervision : ^ 

* Consult in this connection my articles on the Appointment, Pro- 
motion, and Salaries of Teachers in the Encyclopedia of Education 
(edited by Paul Monroe), Vol. V. See also New York City Teachers' 
Association, Report of the Committee on the Promotion of Teachers 
(1907). 

" See my " Tentative Scheme for the Measurement of Teaching 
Efficiency" (Madison, 1910), for a detailed outline based upon these 

136 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 137 

1. Is it possible to devise and to apply to the teaching- 

process, impersonal, quantitative standards whereby 
the relative worth and efficiency of teachers may be 
determined more justly and with greater precision 
than under the ordinary practises of the day? 

2. As fundamental factors in successful teaching- and in 

effective school organization, is not every teacher 
entitled to receive the benefit of direct, constructive 
criticism and of skilful, non-interfering supervision? 

3. Does not the effective organization, administration, 

and supervision of public schools require that the 
conditions and results of the teacher's work be sub- 
jected to measurements- of an objective rather than 
of a subjective nature? 

4. Does not the general elevation of educational stand- 

ards finally depend upon, (a) the analysis of the 
complex teaching process into its essential ele- 
ments ; and (b) the possession of these elements by 
teachers ? 

5. Is it possible for the present generation to make any 

reliable and satisfactory conclusions concerning the 
direction and rate of educational progress with- 
out standards of value resting upon a quantitative 
basis ? 

As supplementary to the discussion contained in the pre- 
ceding chapter with reference to New York City, the fol- 
lowing brief description of the plans and methods for de- 
termining relative teaching efficiency in certain typical 
American cities is pertinent. They are presented here 
without comparison or critical comment. The form and 
content of the records employed emphasize the tendency of 
the day to subject teachers' work to a more systematic 

propositions. Also, Superintendent J. H. Clement, " A Measuring Rod 
for Teaching Efficiency" (Kansas School Magazine, March, 1913), for 
an interesting account of practical experiences of a superintendent of 
schools of a small city. 



138 City School Supervision 

inspection and to require from supervisors a larger con- 
tribution of constructive service to teachers.^ 

BOSTON 

In brief, the situation is as follows : Graduates of the 
Boston Normal School are rated upon the printed eligible 
list and if not previously appointed are allowed to remain 
on this list for six years. Pending regular appointment, 
they are called upon as needed for temporary service. They 
are re-rated each year by the Board of Superintendents on 

* In contrast to the several plans, the outlines of which are shown 
here, is that of Newton, Massachusetts, likewise typical of the most 
efficient smaller cities : 

" I would say briefly that our plan is this. I make no use of any 
printed blanks or forms on which principals and supervisors are re- 
quired to express their opinion of the efficiency and the salary that 
should be paid to individual teachers. I have tried this in the past, 
but gave it up because I found from experience that it is much more 
satisfactory to talk informally with principals and supervisors regard- 
ing each teacher under their supervision. Our plan is to pay each 
teacher what we consider that teacher worth to us so far as our finances 
will permit. We have no schedule whatever except that we have estab- 
lished what we call a 'regular' — which is really a minimum salary — 
and we will employ no one permanently who is not worth at least this 
minimum salary. We determine the worth of a teacher by the market 
value, or what in our experience we know we would have to pay to 
secure a teacher of equal efficiency. To put it concretely: if we are 
discussing the merits and the salary which we are to pay to a teacher 
next year now getting $700, we consider the matter something like 
this : * Teacher is very good and efficient in such and such direc- 
tions. Is she worth more to us than we are paying her? * If we find 
that we have secured during the past year teachers at $600 or $650 who 
are equally efficient and give more promise, we decide that there is no 
reason why the salary of the $700 teacher should be increased. If, on 
the other hand, we find that we as a rule are not able to secure equal 
service at $700, we then increase the salary, perhaps to $750, it may be 
to $800, or even $850. 

" It almost never happens that there is any radical disagreement be- 
tween the principals, supervisors, and myself regarding the relative 
efficiency of teachers. Whenever there is some disagreement we find 
out the points on which we disagree and leave the matter open until we 
have all looked into the teacher's work further. Then, without excep- 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 139 

the basis of the estimate of the principals of the schools in 
which they serve as temporary teachers and of the depart- 
ment of practise and training. About a dozen of the Nor- 
mal School graduates at the top of the list are appointed 
to regular positions during the year following their gradu- 
ation. Most of the other regular appointments to elemen- 
tary schools are made from what is known as the prior list, 
a list made up of the pupils who have been out of the 
Normal School one or more years and who have been re- 
rated as aforesaid. 

In addition to this, examinations are held annually in 
January by the Board of Superintendents. Those who pass 
these examinations successfully are placed upon a separate 
eligible list, but not re-rated. Their certificates are valid 
for six years. They are not re-rated because in most cases 
the examined candidates are teachers holding regular posi- 
tions outside of the city and are, therefore, not available for 
substitute or temporary service in Boston. 

The foregoing plan covers elementary schools only. All 
high school appointments are made from lists of examined 
candidates. These candidates are placed on high school lists 
separated according to the branch of work they elect for 
their major subjects. A copy of the eligible list sent here- 
with shows you the different divisions that are made. 

tion that I can recall, we have always been in substantial accord. As 
superintendent I am responsible for the recommendation which goes 
to the board. This recommendation has always, without exception, 
been adopted by the board. 

" Placing the whole salary plan on the individual merit basis, and 
actually carrying it out in this way, seems theoretically a very risky 
thing to do. We have had really no difficulty with it whatever, and I 
am confident that no other administrative measure has done so much to 
improve the efficiency of our corps of teachers." — Superintendent F. E. 
Spaulding, May 2, 1913. 

On the other hand, numerous school superintendents and principals 
are now making a careful study of the elements of successful service 
by public school teachers, and formulating systematic efficiency plans. 
One of the most interesting and suggestive of these is that prepared by 
Superintendent J. A. Doelle, of Houghton, Michigan, in 1912. 



140 City School Supervision 

The plan of promotion of teachers already in the service 
has not yet been fully developed. A first promotional ex- 
amination is required of all teachers at the end of the sec- 
ond year of service, and a second promotional examination 
must be taken before a teacher may be placed on the seventh 
year of the salary of her rank. 

A teacher who fails to pass the first promotional exami- 
nation remains on the second year of her salary for another 
year, when she may then be re-examined. If she fails a 
second time, her service ceases on the last day of August or 
the last day of December, whichever next follows her sec- 
ond examination. The failure to take the second promo- 
tional examination, however, does not eliminate a teacher 
from the service. 

The promotional examinations consist of three parts: 
(i) Success in school during the preceding year; (2) pro- 
fessional study; (3) academic study in some one line. Col- 
lege courses and certain other substitutions for the profes- 
sional and academic examinations may be made. The rec- 
ord of such promotional examinations, shown on page 141, 
is kept. 

CHICAGO * 

The plan of promotion, in brief, is this : Teachers enter 
the system in what is called the second group. In this group 
they are advanced in salary annually to the limit of the 
group — seven years for elementary teachers. At that time 
they may be promoted to the first group, which means 
simply a higher schedule of salaries. Any teacher whose 
marks for one year previous to promotion have been 
" Good " or higher is eligible to promotion. Promotion is 
based, first, on efficiency in teaching; second, upon having 
passed a promotional examination in certain subjects or 
through having filed five credits for work done either in 

^ For a detailed description of the plan of promotion, see C. D. 
Lowry, in the Seventh Year Book of the National Society for the Sci- 
entific Study of Education, 1908. 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 141 



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142 



City School Supervision 



Normal Extension or with some degree-giving institution. 
Five credits are equivalent to about one-third of a year of 
work in college. Nearly all of the promotions are by means 
of credits. The main purpose of the examination is to 
encourage the student habit in teachers and principals. 

The reports upon teaching efficiency are made according 
to these forms: 

BOARD OF EDUCATION 

CITY OF CHICAGO 



OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 

School 



PRINCIPAL'S REPORT OF TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY 
Term Ending 191 ... 





Name (give full 
name with initials) 


Grade 
now 

teach- 
ing 


Estimate of 
Efficiency- 


Times 
tardy 
during 
Term 


Times 
absent 
during 
Term 


Remarks 




Hd. Asst. 




























Kinderg'n Teachers 




























Special Teachers 



























^igned . 



Principal School 



Date 

Principals are requested to make this report at the close of the second week of 
the school months of January and May and to send it promptly to the Superin- 
tendent of Schools. 

Teachers are classed as regards efficiency in five groups, namely: Superior, 
Excellent, Good, Fair, Inefficient. (See Proceedings of Board of Education, Sep- 
tember 22, 1909, § 1 1967.) 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 143 

Board of Education 
city of chicago 

REPORT ON WORK OF CADETS AND SUBSTITUTES 

Reports on cadets to be made on last school day of December, May and June, and at such 
other times as may be necessary. Reports on substitutes to be made at close of period of substi- 
tuting. When a substitute is employed at the end of any school term, a report should be made of 
her work up to that time. 

School, Chicago, 19 

To the Superintendent of Schools: 

M served 

as in this school, from 19. . . 

(Cadet or Substitute) 

to 19 • • • ) period of days, and her 

efl&ciency in such work was (Use the words Good, Excel- 
lent, Superior, Fair, Inefficient, as in the rating of regular teachers.) 

The above reported (substitute) work was in grade. 

Is this teacher proficient in the teaching of Drawing? 

Music? Physical Culture? 

In what subject or subjects is she specially prepared for instruction under the 
departmental plan? 



Total length of time this cadet or substitute has served in this school,. 

months. 

Grades best qualified to teach 



General character of work: H work has been satisfactory. 

(Principals will remember that under the rules a satisfactory report will be understood as an 
expression of willingness to have the cadet or substitute assigned as a teacher in the school from 
which such report is received.) 

Signed 

Principal School 



144 



City School Supervision 



CINCINNATI '■ 

There are two possible applications of a system of rating 
promotion in this city : 

First: Teachers who have received the maximum salary 
of $950 per annum may receive a promotional salary of $50 
per year additional upon the completion of what is termed 
credit work to the extent of 8 credits. A credit is given for 
the completion of a course in the University or a summer 
school or a reading circle pr other work approved in advance 
by the Superintendent of Schools to the extent of at least 
24 hours per year. Teachers are not granted more than 
two credits a year and are discouraged from attempting to 
do more than that amount. Having received the maximum 
salary of $1000, teachers continue upon that schedule, doing 
at least sufficient work to receive one credit every other year. 

This work is reported annually at the close of each school 
year by the principals upon the form shown below, which 
is then rated by the Superintendent and salaries adjusted 
accordingly. The instructors in charge of the courses 
submit also vouchers of enrolment and attendance directly 



CINCINNATI PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

Report of Professional Work of Teachers in School for Year 

Ending June, 191 .. . 

, Principal 



Name of 
Teacher 


Course 


Where 
Given 


Leader 


No. Times 
Present 


Is Voucher 
Attached 























































* See John W. Hall, " Supervision of Beginning Teachers in Cin- 
cinnati." Twelfth Year Book, National Society for the Study of 
Education. 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 145 

to the Superintendent, which serves as a check upon the 
statements of the teachers submitted through the principals. 
Second: Promotions to administrative positions are open 
for men in accordance with the quahfications laid down 
under Regulation 11, Page 40, of the Rule Book. Evidence 
of college credits required under this regulation is secured 
directly from the official of the Institution. 

CLEVELAND 

At the beginning of the school year, when the first pay-roll 
is completed, a list of teachers who are likely to be entitled 
to promotion under the salary schedule is made up. This 
list gives the salary and grade of the teacher. These lists 
are submitted to the supervisors and assistant superintend- 
ents, who mark them. 

About six weeks before the close of school the promotion 
blanks are sent to the supervisors and principals of the 
various buildings. These blanks are filled out and returned 
to the Superintendent's Office, after which the list for pro- 
motion is made up by the Superintendent and Assistant 
Superintendents. 

PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 



Office of the Superintendent of Schools 
Cleveland, Ohio 
to the principal: 

Please answer the question below concerning 

Grade, Present Salary, School 

and return this blank to the Superintendent's Office. 

Date blank sent 19 . . . 

Answer received 19 . . . 

Length of service, total Length of service in your school 

Please make the answers straightforward and unequivocal. 

(The principal wiU show this promotion sheet to teachers, individually, be- 
fore it is filled out.) 

Superintendent of Schools. 



146 City School Supervision 



B£PORT trPON PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 

I Teaching Power 

a. Does she make regular and thoughtful daily preparation for her work? 

b. Is she definite in her instruction? 

Thoughtful? 

c. Does she awaken and develop power in her pupils? 

d. What kind of results does she secure? 

e. Do outside pleasures or duties or her health interfere with her work? 



2 Executive Power 

a. Do you consider her successful in discipline? 

b. Does she secure a responsive working spirit in her school? 

c. Does she maintain satisfactory relations with the principal's office in 
matters of reports, care of property, discipline of pupils, etc.? 



d. What relations does she establish with the patrons of the school? 

e. What are her weakest points? 



3 Personal Influence 

a. Does she inspire her pupils and develop enthusiasm in work? 

b. Does she train her pupils to independence in work? , 

c. Does she influence her pupils for good beyond the time they are in her 
presence? 

d. Is her relation with other teachers in the building wholesome? 

4 Professional Sincerity 

a. Is she sincere and earnest in her work? 

b. Does she thoughtfully measure the outcome of her practise? 

c. What attitude has she toward the large interests of the profession which 
she has chosen? 

d. Is she frank and candid in her dealings with pupils? 

c. In what spirit does she receive the suggestions of the principal and super- 
visors; does she regard them as personal or professional? 

5 General Culture 

a. Is her scholarship and general information accurate and adequate? 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 147 

b. Is her refinement of manner, control of voice and use of English satis- 
factory? 

c. Is she dynamic and progressive, alert and open minded to new ideas? . . . 

d. What are her special interests? 



e. Is the teacher's work or personality sufl&ciently faulty to require serious 

criticism? 

Have you made such criticism? 

How often? 

With what effect? 



Principal, 



Date ig. . . 

Leave this space for the Superintendent. 

{a. Promoted to Class 
b. Not Promoted. Remains in Class, 
c. When the Teacher was notified 



PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 



To aid in determining as to promotion the teacher will please record below 
any of the following or other means of growth that she has utilized during the 
past four school years, noting those that have been especially helpful: Travel, 
summer classes, extension classes, lectures, concerts, special studies in literature, 
history, music or art. 

DETROIT 

The following report is filled out each year by the prin- 
cipal of the school. Similar reports are made by the super- 
visors of the various subjects when called for by the Super- 
intendent. The graduates of the Detroit Normal Training 
School teach a probationary term of one and one-half years. 
Reports from the special supervisors of the Normal Train- 
ing School concerning the work of these cadets are made 
each semester, and their promotion from class to class and 
their final contract depend upon the satisfactory character 
of these reports. 



148 City School Supervision 

DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOL REPORT 

Name of Teacher Class Grade. 

Practise period ending 19 . . Grade. 

I. Management: — 

1. Handling of classes and dismissals 

2. Distribution of material 

3. Physical bearing of children 



I. Lesson { 

I 2. 



n. Instructions: — 

Form 

Thought 

2. Daily preparation 

3. Power of adapting work to needs of children. 

4. Power of holding attention through interest.. 

5. Questioning definiteness and purpose 

6. OriginaUty in devices and illustrations 

7. Board work: legibility and neatness 

8. Desk work: originaUty and adaptability 

9. Results: 



m. spirit: — 

1. Attitude toward work. . . , 

2. Attitude toward criticism. 



IV. Personal Items: — 

Points to be considered; animation; withusiasm; manner; voice; self-con- 
trol; dignity; punctuaUty; language; (grammatical accuracy); state of health; 

Degree of improvement 

Is the teacher adapted to the work of this grade? 

How do you rate this year's work considered as a whole? 



Remarks 

Date 19 . . . , Principal. 

Note. — In marking, use the following symbols: E (excellent); G (good); 
F (Fair); U (unsatisfactory). Use the space under Remarks for such sugges- 
tions as will tend to help the student to strengthen her work where it has shown 
weakness. This space may also be utilized for any explanation that may be 
necessary to a full and clear understanding of the marks. 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 149 



MILWAUKEE 

All the plans of promotion are merely matters of usage. 
Substantially all of them are made upon the recommenda- 
tion of the superintendent of schools. In the case of prin- 
cipals and supervisors, he bears the entire responsibility for 
the recommendation. In the case of assistant teachers and 
minor positions, he bases his recommendation chiefly upon 
information supplied to him and recommendations made by 
the assistant superintendents, supervisors, principals, etc. 
There is nothing in the school law at present which requires 
any such plan as this to be followed. It is entirely a matter 
of the school board rules and custom. The board, if it 
chose, might promote to any position, except to that of 
assistant superintendent or supervisor, without obtaining 
or heeding in any way the recommendation of the super- 
intendent, the most incompetent or unqualified person in its 
employ or from outside. The law at present gives the 
schools no protection. (For specimen records see pages 

150-153-) 



150 



City School Supervision 



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Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 151 























































































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154 City School Supervision 



NEW ORLEANS 



New teachers are appointed upon a probationary period 
of three years. At the end of the first three months of 
teaching and annually thereafter, principals make reports 
to the superintendent on these probationary teachers. 



REPORT ON PROBATIONARY TEACHERS 



OrriCE OF THE Superintendent of Schools 
New Orleans, Louisiana 

To THE Principal: 

Please answer the questions below concerning 

and return the blank to the Superintendent's Office. 

Please make answers direct and definite. 



J. M. GWINN, 

Superintendent of Schools. 



General Information 

Date of assignment to your school? 

Length of service under yoxir supervision? 

Grade taught? Number of pupils? 

Is she in good health? Has she any physical defects? . 



Teaching Ability 

Does she make regular, adequate, and thoughtful daily preparation for 
teaching? 

Is she definite in instruction? Thought provoking? . . . . 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 155 

Does she keep all pupils at work and mentally alert? 

Is she resourceful in the use of teaching devices, illustrations, concrete and 

material helps? 

Does she use a variety of methods in teaching? 

Does she awaken an interest on part of pupils for school work? 



What kind of results does she secure? . 



Ability to Control 

Do you consider her successful in discipline? 

Does she secure a responsive working spirit in her pupils? 

Is she forceful? Tactful? Self -controlled? . 

Systematic? Punctual? 

What are her weakest points? 

Does she give sufficient attention to the ventilation of the room? 

To temperature? To lighting? , 

To seating? , 



Professional Spirit 

Does she give herself freely to her work? Does she love her work? .... 

Does she seek to improve her knowledge? Her method? 

Is she sincere and earnest in her work? 

Does she participate in the professional organization in the city and state? 

Does she cooperate with the other teachers? With parents? 

In what spirit does she receive the suggestions of the principal? 

Does she carry out instructions? 

Is she loyal? 



Education and General Culture 
Is her scholarship accurate and adequate? General information? .... 

Are her refinement of manner, control of voice, and use of English satisfac- 
tory? 

Is she progressive and open-minded? 

What are her special interests? 



156 City School Supervision 

Do you recommend that she be confirmed in her appointment as teacher? 
Remarks 



Principal. 
School. 



Date 191. 



Twice each year principals are required to make report on 
the efficiency of all teachers. The reports made by the prin- 
cipals, supplemented by the reports made by the assistant 
superintendents, are very largely made the basis for rec- 
ommendations for retirement of teachers and for promotion 
to some special kind of work. (See pages 157-158.) 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 157 















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Teaching E-fficiency in Other Cities 159 



PHILADELPHIA 

The form on page 160 is used by the principals to report 
to the district superintendents twice a year. The District 
Superintendents use the same form in reporting to the cen- 
tral office, but they report only those who are applicants for 
some higher position or who are not rendering satisfactory 
service. In this office the rating of the district superintend- 
ent (which, by the way, is given numerically) is combined 
with other elements to determine the final rating, but the 
efficiency rating given by the district superintendent is 
always the chief element in determining the teacher's stand- 
ing. The chief supplementary element is that of advanced 
study. Certificates from reputable institutions are accepted 
as evidence of this study. There are no promotional exami- 
nations in the usual sense of this term. Some positions re- 
quire special certificates, for which, of course, examinations 
are held. 



i6o 



City School Supervision 



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(List every Teacher on 
roll at end of term, high- 
est grade first. Rating 
may be omitted for those 
on roll less than two 
months.) 
















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Teaching EMcicticy in Other Cities i6i 



ST. LOUIS 

The plan pursued in St. Louis is, briefly stated, as follows : 

Each principal of a school is required to make a report 
upon the teachers of his school three times a year, the first 
week of November, January, and April. The last report is 
the most complete of the three. The first two are confined 
to three points, the last includes six points. 

Each principal is required to make in addition to these 
reports a written report in detail, covering- the six points 
named in the third report, on each new teacher at the time 
the third report is made. When a principal takes charge 
of a new school, such a report is required with reference 
to each teacher in the school. Thereafter, whenever a 
change is made in the marking of a teacher, a written report 
covering the point in regard to which the change is made 
is required. If, however, no change is made in the marking 
of a teacher, it is deemed sufficient to state in writing that 
the marks of teachers named have not been changed and 
that the judgment previously recorded is reaffirmed. 

The marks of each teacher are transferred in the superin- 
tendent's office to permanent cards immediately after the 
report of the principal is received, and these cards are kept 
on file in the office for examination whenever the record is 
desired by the superintendent or his assistants, or by mem- 
bers of the Board of Education, and, on request of the 
teacher marked, are shown to that teacher. 

If an assistant superintendent cannot approve the mark- 
ing of a teacher in his district, he is expected to note this 
fact on the teacher's card over his signature. 

Usually promotions are made within the corps of teachers 
of the school in which the vacancy occurs, but if there is 
no one in the school to whom in the judgment of the super- 
intendent the promotion should be ^iven, a teacher with 
superior record may be transferred into the school and 
receive the promotion. It is not customary to promote any 
teacher who has not been marked "E" (excellent), in all 



1 62 City School Supervision 

respects, for a number of years and has not been designated * 
for promotion repeatedly. Exceptions may be made' i*n' 
case unusual merit has been shown. 

Separate reports are required on substitute and appren- 
tice teachers, and each assistant superintendent is reqtiired 
to make a report on each principal in his district once *ar 
year. Each year also each assistant superintendent makes 
out from the list of teachers in his district a list of teachers 
who in his judgment and in accordance with the marks on 
the permanent cards as well as with his own observations 
are eligible for promotion should opportunity occur. These 
lists are placed in the hands of the Superintendent of In- 
struction. In making promotions, excellence and kind and 
length of service are the factors that determine the selection. 

ANNUAL REPORT ON TEACHERS' STANDING 



Office of the Supeeintekdent of Instruction 
Board of Education 

St. Louis, Mo., 191 . . 

To Principais: 

Rule 44, Section VII, of the Rules of the Board of Education provides as follows: 

"For the proper grading as to merit, the Superintendent of Instruction shall direct 
the principals of each of the public schools to render him at least three reports during 
each year upon the standing and qualifications of each individual teacher, in such manner 
and upon such printed blanks as he may find advisable for obtaining the fullest infor- 
mation in that regard. " 

The principals will make these reports, required by the rule of the Board of Education, 
during the first week of November, January and April of each year. It is intended to 
have two of these reports in a brief form, and the last one in the form of a full state- 
ment. 

You are requested to return to this office, on or before , 

a full report of your estimate of the practical efficiency and the professional quahties 
of each of the teachers of your school, including Kindergarten teachers, in accordance 
with the directions given below. 

For a correct understanding of the brief headings of the columns, the following 
suggestions are made: 

A. — Practical Efficiency 

I. Management of Children. — This includes what is usually called the "dis- 
cipline of the room," and also the general influence of the teacher's management 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 163 

on the development of character. Both the results and the methods of a teacher's 
management of the children should be taken into consideration. There may be, on 
one side, good order not based on fear of punishment, but brought about by a strong 
teacher's kindly influence over her pupils, and, on the other hand, there may be strict 
order attained by an imnecessary frequency of cases of discipline, and a manifestation 
of caprice or unnecessary harshness. 

2. Instruction. — A teacher 's power to impart instruction should be judged both 
by the results accomplished, and by the educational value of her methods of teaching. 
The principal should take into consideration the influence which her instruction has 
on the development of the children's intelligence, interest, self-activity and progress. 
In case of the ICindergarten teacher, principals wiU report under the head of Instruction, 
her efSciency in the educational work of the Kindergarten. 

3. Attention to Details of School Business. — This includes the teacher's regular- 
ity of attendance (tardiness), accuracy, and neatness of record work, promptness in re- 
quired reports, readiness to carry out directions (cooperation), the neatness of the 
room and similar matters. 

B. — Professional Qualities 

4. Scholarship. — This includes the schooling received by the teacher, the general 
information which she possesses and preparation for her special work. 

5. Professional Interest and Zeal. — By this is meant the desire for self-improve- 
ment, the habit of reading good Uterature and of using the means of self-culture, which, 
through lectures and otherwise, the city offers. It includes professional progressiveness, 
attending teachers' meetings, etc. 

6. Personal Qualifications. — This report should show the general estimate which 
the principal places on the value of the presence and assistance of the teacher as a mem- 
ber of the faculty of the school. It includes the teacher's tact in dealing with parents and 
pupils, and her general influence. 

Kindly write on the other side of this paper in each column, opposite the name of the 
teacher, the initial letter of one of the four words: excellent, good, moderate and 
unsatisfactory — (e, g, m, u). 

7. Transfer. — Where a principal is dissatisfied with the work of a teacher and be- 
lieves a transfer is advisable, the letter "t" should be placed in the fourth column. 
In such case the reason must be fully stated at the end of this report. No transfer should 
be indicated in this report for any cause other than dissatisfaction on part of the prin- 
cipal with the work or management of the teacher. A principal should not recom- 
mend a transfer where the teacher, in his opinion, is inefficient and should be discon- 
tinued. In such case the word "inefficient" should be placed in the fourth column. 

8. Promotion. — Where a teacher does exceptionally good work and excels, com- 
pared with other teachers of the same grade, the principal shall designate her as worthy 
of promotion by placing the letter "p" opposite her name, in the fourth column. If 
more than one teacher is reported for promotion, the principal must indicate his pref- 
erence by reptorting "p i," "p 2;" otherwise the recommendation is void. 

g. In addition to this general estimate expressed in marks, and made in regard to 
every teacher, principals will send a detailed report on every new teacher that has been 
added to their school by transfer or otherwise, since their report of a year ago. For this 
purpose they will write on each of the enclosed blanks the name of one of their new 
teachers and state fully their opinion of her practical efficiency and personal quali- 
fications, under each of the six topics explained above. They will place the special 
topic as a title above each of the statements that are made concerning the new teacher. 



164 



City School Supervision 



Principals should add reports on such of their old teachers in regard to whom they 
wish to change any of the opinions expressed in former years. 

Principals who have been transferred or appointed to a school on whose teachers 
they have not previously reported will send a detailed report on each teacher in their 
corps. As a rule this special and detailed report need not be made in regard to those 
teachers on whom the principal has reported fuUy in some previous year, except when 
such report is specially called for by the Superintendent. 

When making the returns that are hereby required, principals will place the names 
of all the teachers on one blank and write and sign the following statement: "A de- 
tailed report on the teachers in the above list was sent to the Superintendent in the year 

, and I hereby confirm the report then made as being a correct 

expression of my opinion of the present standing of these teachers." 

Your attention is urgently directed to the necessity of making this report a candid 
statement which is uninfluenced by any consideration except the wish to make it agree 
fuUy with the facts. A principal becomes alone responsible for the presence of unsat- 
isfactory teachers in his school, if he fails to report frankly his estimate of their work and 
quaUfications. 

Respectfully, 



.School 



Superintendent. 



St. Louis, 19 . . 



To THE StTPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION: 

In accordance with Rule 44, Section VIII, of the Rules of the Board -of Education, 
I herewith present the following report on the standing of the teachers of my school, 
which is correct according to the best of my knowledge and belief. 



Principal. 





PRACTICAL 


PROFESSIONAL 


a 




EFFICIENCY 


QUALITIES 


2 


NAMES 


|a 


d 






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Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 165 



SALT LAKE CITY 

Candidates without experience and those whose experi- 
ence is less than three years shall be assigned to the first 
class, and other probationary teachers shall be assigned to 
the second class. No probationary teacher in the first class 
shall be promoted whose rating in efficiency is less than 
" C," and no one in the second class shall be promoted to 
the rank of regular teacher whose rank is less than " C." 
Provided, however, that for unusual merit the board may at 
any regular meeting promote any probationary teacher to 
the rank of regular teacher. 

Reelected teachers of required efficiency shall be ad- 
vanced fifty dollars each year until the maximum salary has 
been reached ; provided, however, that any reelected teacher 
may, for cause, be denied promotion or reduced in rank; 
and, provided, further, that any reelected teacher may at 
any regular meeting of the board for exceptional merit 
be given a further advance to an amount not in excess 
of the maximum salary; provided, also, that the maximum 
salary attainable by any reelected teacher shall be deter- 
mined upon the basis of efficiency as follows : " C " group, 
$700; " B " group, $900; " A " group, $1,020. 

No teacher in the " D " group of efficiency shall be re- 
elected to the rank of regular teacher. 

Any regular teacher demoted to the rank of probationary 
teacher will be discontinued not later than the end of the 
year in which such demotion is made effective, unless evi- 
dence is shown of satisfactory growth of efficiency. 

It shall be the duty of the superintendent of schools to 
notify in writing any teacher rated as " D " or " U " of such 
classification at least four weeks before the close of school. 
Such notification should be given as early in the year as may 
be practicable, in order that the teacher may have all reason- 
able opportunity for improvement. 



1 66 City School Supervision 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF SALT LAKE CITY 
School 



., Principal. 









191.. 




191. 










FuU Names of 
Teachers 


tfi 




Teacher's 

Tact with 

Children 


.2 


-S 
1 
« 
§ 


1) 

'E 


Attitude of 

Pupils 

toward Work 


0^ 


Remarks 











































Explanatory. — "A" Excellent; "B" Very good, strong; "C" Acceptable, 
satisfactory; "D" Fair; "U" Unsatisfactory. 

To he filed on or before 

Remarks: 

SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS 

Principals report the efficiency of teachers upon the fol- 
lowing form: 

CITY OF SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS 
School Department 



Report on Teachers, . . 








School, .... 




....191... 


Names — In 
Order of Merit 


Grade 


Salary 


Years of Service 


,0 


c 


P 


0^ 

.2 '3 




In 

Spring- 
field 


Else- 
where 


Remarks 







































. , Principal. 



Scale of Marking: E — excellent; G — good; M — moderate; P — poor. 
Plus and minus signs may be used if desired, and names of equal merit may be 
bracketed. Additional remarks, if any, may be written on a separate sheet. 



Teaching Efficiency in Other Cities 167 

An impartial study of the typical teaching efficiency plans 
and devices assembled in this chapter produces two clear 
impressions. First, that they provide only crude mechanical 
and incomplete measures of teaching performance; and, 
second, that they are, even in their existing primitive form, 
clear evidences of a most significant phase of school super- 
vision, now in the process of development, which must be 
further developed if the inherent craft consciousness of 
professional responsibility is to be transmitted into the real- 
ity of effective individual performance. They presage the 
time when permanent teaching service will be equivalent 
to daily teaching fitness; when organized school supervi- 
sion may be regarded as something more than a sport of 
professional egoism.^ 

* American school men will find in Dr. F. H. Hayward's " The Psy- 
chology of Educational Administration and Criticism " (London, 1912) 
much of stimulative value ; especially Part II, Studies in Egoism, and 
Part III, Studies in Educational Opinion. 



CHAPTER XI 
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REORGANIZATION 

THE survey that has been made by this portion of the 
Inquiry has led to the following four recommenda- 
tions for the reorganization of the supervisory staff. 
Through these recommendations an effort has been made to 
concentrate attention upon those official agencies and forces 
that, from their strategic position, and by their constitution 
and nature, exert a determining influence upon the character 
and effectiveness of the accomplishments of the schools of 
the city. The inadequacies of the school system cannot be 
removed, nor the maladjustments corrected, without treat- 
ing directly these tap-roots of control. 

RECOMMENDATION I 

That appropriate steps he taken to secure the necessary 
legislation for the abolition of the Board of Superintend- 
ents and the position of associate city superintendent; and 
that a careful, detailed study '^ he made of the powers and 
duties now belonging to the City Superintendent, to the 
Board of Superintendents, and to the associate city super- 
intendents, to the end of securing a more efficient and eco- 
nomical distribution of the necessary administrative and 
supervisory powers and duties atnong the City Superintend- 
ent, the proposed Supervisory Council, the district super- 
intendents, and the principals of schools. 

The arguments in support of this recommendation may 
be summarized as follows : 

^ By the proposed Bureau of Investigation and Appraisal ; or by the 
Board of Education, pending the establishment of such bureau. 

i68 



Recommendations for Reorganization 169 

(i) Under the existing form and method of control of 
"the school system the Board of Superintendents is charged 
with the exercise of the three varieties of control functions : 
(a) administrative, (b) supervisory, and (c) inspectorial — 
already described.^ While, under the conditions that obtain 
in the school organization of a small city, these three classes 
of functions are not independent or mutually exclusive as 
to character and object, the magnitude of the demands and 
the complexity of the activities of the New York City public 
school system are such as to necessitate specialization for 
performance and for fixation of responsibility. Until these 
distinctions in the several varieties of school control are 
recognized and provided for, there will continue to be, as 
now, a constant duplication of effort and a friction of opera- 
tion of the constituted agencies. 

(2) As an agency for the prompt and effective perform- 
ance of executive and administrative duties the Board of 
Superintendents is unnecessarily complicated in its organiza- 
tion and methods of procedure. Of its general powers and 
duties, as enumerated by the charter, and in the by-laws of 
the Board of Education, there is none that could not be 
more effectively, economically, and promptly performed 
under the direction of a single administrative officer. Of 
the principal powers and authorities of the Board of Super- 
intendents, as enumerated on page 82 of this report. Items 
b, h, j, 1, m, and n might properly fall within the exclusive 
jurisdiction of the City Superintendent. Items a, e, f, g, i, 
and k should belong to a representative body of supervisors 
and teachers. Item c cannot literally be carried out by a 
board. Item d raises the issue as to whether or not the dis- 
trict superintendents and directors should not be nominated 
from an eligible list, as are principals and teachers. 

(3) The abolition of the Board of Superintendents is 
necessary in order more definitely to fix responsibility for 
the requisite administrative control of the schools. At the 
present time there is too much divided responsibility, and 

" See Chapter II, pp. 7-13, 



170 City School Supervision 

consequently too great opportunity for bureaucratic and 
personal control. 

(4) A careful examination of the minutes of the Board 
of Superintendents for the past three years produces abun- 
dant evidence for the conclusions that the time and energy 
of the board, as a board, are taken up with matters requiring 
abilities of a high-grade clerical character rather than the 
combined services of nine high-priced, and presumably ex- 
pert, educational directors. 

(5) As supervisory officers the members of the Board 
of Superintendents are too far removed from the actual 
conditions confronting teachers, schools, and neighborhoods 
to render the most needed form of service. There are no 
valid reasons for giving to this body complete authority 
over the activities and freedom of those who are primarily 
responsible for the accomplishments and progress of the 
pupils. 

(6) The proper inspection and appraisal of the work of 
the school system require capacities and training radically 
different from those of an administrative officer, and an 
attitude of mind inconsistent with responsibility for the 
performance of routine tasks. 

(7) The members of the teaching and supervisory staff, 
as well as the people of the community, have a right to a 
readiness and promptness in the working of the adminis- 
trative machinery not possible under the present multi- 
plicity of checks and balances contained in the Board of 
Superintendents. 

Special Note. — On April 23, 1913, five of the nine members of the 
Board of Superintendents submitted to the Board of Education (Docu- 
ment No. 5, 1913) a " Review and Reply" to the report forming a basis 
of this book. This review and reply attempts to criticise the standards, 
methods of investigation, and the recommendations of the report. In 
reality, however, it is a defense of the board as an organization, its 
activities for the past decade, and its present efficiency. A thorough 
and sympathetic study of the arguments presented in the document 
leads to the conclusion of the soundness of this recommendation. 



Recommendations for Reorganization lyi 



RECOMMENDATION II 

That appropriate steps be taken to secure the creation of 
a Supervisory Council to he composed of the City Super- 
intendentj all of the district superintendents, and a selected 
number of directors, principals of training schools, princi- 
pals of high schools, principals of elementary schools, and 
representatives from the teaching staff in the various types 
and grades of schools. 

To this Supervisory Council should be given general 
powers and directions with regard to programs of study, 
and all other essential matters relating to the methods and 
standards of instruction. Until such a representative board 
is charged with educational responsibility, the city cannot 
hope to secure the most efficient service, nor will teachers 
be given a degree of freedom consistent with the effective 
performance of the duties assigned them.^ In support of 
this proposition the following may be offered : 

* "During the past three years emphasis has been given to the ne- 
cessity of mutual cooperation in the teaching body. A school system 
can do but medium work if the supervisory force fails to furnish in- 
telligent leadership or lacks authority in carrying into effect such 
major policies as may be decided upon. Any condition that allows the 
whims or vagaries of individual principals or teachers to supplant or 
interfere with these major policies is indefensible. When the teachers 
in the same city are not working in accordance with the same plan 
towards the same end, the total product of the schools will "have less 
value than it should have. 

" Every principal recognizes the necessity of having the work done 
in arithmetic in the fourth grade made the basis for instruction in arith- 
metic in the fifth grade. It is highly detrimental to the pupil to start 
to learn complementary subtraction, for example, in one grade, and 
then be compelled to begin on a different system in the next grade. The 
resulting confusion leaves the pupil much worse off than he would 
have been had either plan been followed in both grades. It is the busi- 
ness of the principal to see that a sufficient uniformity of aim and 
method shall be present in all grades of his school to insure for each 
pupil the regular and systematic presentation of educational material 
or proper simplicity and at a rate suited to his ability. 

" It is equally evident that reasonable uniformity of aims, methods, 



172 City School Supervision 

(i) As already argued in this report, the effectiveness 
of the control of a school system is measured by the degree 
to which there is provision for cooperation of all those re- 

and material should exist in a city such as Boston, where thousands of 
pupils change yearly from district to district. Any system of manage- 
ment that fails to secure a degree of cooperation sufficient to accom- 
plish these results is inefficient. Granted, then, that the separate schools 
of the same school system should have reasonable uniformity in aims, 
purposes, and policies, the important problem of school administration 
is what shall those policies be and who shall determine them? 

" One grave defect in American education is the lack of any institu- 
tional method for the participation of teachers in the determination of 
major educational policies. These policies are generally determined 
individually, i. e., by the superintendent for the whole city, by the prin- 
cipal for his own school, or by the teacher for his own class. Each is 
far from good. 

"If the superintendent is vested with full authority, the schools go 
up and down with the varying ability of successive superintendents. 
Under an able man, the schools may be brought rapidly to a high degree 
of efficiency; his successor, having different policies to enforce, may 
produce dire confusion. A still more detrimental effect of an autocratic 
system is the development in the teaching body of a lack of responsi- 
bility for major things and the growth of a feeling of waiting for 
orders rather than a feeling of intelligent participation in the larger 
elements of educational work. 

" When, on the other hand, individual principals conduct their schools 
without reference to the mutual relations that should exist among the 
different districts in the same system, the resulting waste of effort is 
still greater. The condition becomes intolerable when individual 
teachers are allowed to teach their classes along lines opposed to the 
established plan for the conduct of the whole school, and out of har- 
mony with the work done by their fellow-teachers. The supremacy of 
individual teachers, though it may produce contentment, brings with it 
educational chaos. 

" What is needed is an organization that provides for the fullest 
consideration of educational policies by teachers, by principals and by 
the supervisory force, wherein every major problem may be discussed 
with fullest harmony and with most complete information as to its 
bearing upon the interests of pupils, of teachers, and of the community. 
Such an organization should have official recognition and become a 
permanent institution that would guarantee a professional rather than 
a personal consideration of school problems. It should serve to elimi- 
nate the whims of successive superintendents and be equally valuable 



Recommendations for Reorganization 173 

sponsible for results. The chief evil of the existing scheme 
of control is to be found in the disinclination to utilize the 

in curbing the teacher who insists upon his personal prerogatives with- 
out recognizing the relation of his work to that of his fellow-teachers. 

" For the purpose of establishing such an institution the high school 
councils have been created. In each high school the department meet- 
ings furnish opportunity for discussion participated in by every teacher 
concerned. Any given problem may here be considered with refer- 
ence to its effect upon both pupils and teachers, and each teacher can 
have his say. In the council meetings each high school is represented, 
and any modifications of the department decisions, made necessary by 
the interrelation of the high schools, may be determined. The recom- 
mendations of the councils are sent to the Head Masters' Association, 
and here the questions are again discussed by the principals with ref- 
erence to the broader lines of high school administration that they 
may involve. Here, also, are present representatives from each coun- 
cil, thus insuring that a recommendation from one council, say that 
of English, shall be subjected to the critical consideration of repre- 
sentatives from every other council whose interests may be aflfected 
thereby. The conclusions of the head masters are in turn submitted to 
the Board of Superintendents, where they are again discussed with 
reference to their relation to the school system as a whole. 

"When a recommendation reaches the final authority, — the School 
Board, — it does not represent the personal opinion of any teacher, 
principal, or superintendent. It may fall somewhat short of the best 
that has been proposed, but it is almost certain to be the best that is 
possible at that particular time and with that particular set of teachers. 
It represents intelligent and responsible participation of all interests 
in a decision that can be carried into effect by hearty cooperative 
effort. 

" It is not conceivable that a policy adopted under such a system 
could be seriously detrimental to the interest of teachers, or be con- 
trary to well-established principles of education, or restrict opportunity 
for the full play of the initiative and personality of the teacher. Any 
one who would seriously object to carrying out a policy so adopted 
would be placing himself in opposition to the consensus of opinion of 
his fellow-teachers, and would justify doubts as to his further useful- 
ness in that particular school system. 

" The preceding discussion attempts to point out some of the proper 
and desirable restrictions upon the legislative functions of the super- 
intendent. It is highly important that no similar restrictions be placed 
upon the executive functions exercised by the superintendent and his 
assistants. When once a major policy has been determined, there 



174 City School Supervision 

experience of the great body of teachers and supervisors 
who always make up the advance guard of stable progress/ 

should be no hesitancy in placing it in operation, and no lack of author- 
ity on the part of executive and supervisory officials in enforcing it. 

" For the elementary schools, the problem of permanent organiza- 
tion and of official recognition of a similar form of systematic partici- 
pation of teachers in the determination of major educational policies 
is more difficult but fully as desirable. The enthusiasm and ability that 
have marked the deliberations of the various committees appointed 
during recent years give full assurance of the successful operation of 
such a plan vi^hen once established. It is hoped that, vi^ith the help of 
leading teachers in the elementary schools, a system of teacher-par- 
ticipation may soon be devised that will retain for the Boston schools 
the advantages of initiative and individuality and secure for them the 
advantages of systematic organization and cooperative effort. 

" In accordance with the general belief outlined above, the amount 
of participation of teachers in the determination of courses of study 
and of general educational policies has been increased from time to 
time. Some of these activities have been given systematic organization 
in permanent form, such as high school councils; others should 
be given a similar organization; still others best serve their purpose 
by being temporary in nature." — Superintendent Stratton D. Brooks of 
Boston, on " Participation of Teachers in Determination of Educa- 
tional Policies." In Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Superintend- 
ent of Schools for 1908-1909. School Document No. 13 ; 1909. 

* On May 26, 1912, the following letter was sent to the officers of 
twenty-six voluntary associations of teachers : 

" My dear Sir : 

" Will you kindly give me, for our use in connection with the School 
Inquiry, the aims of your association and the number of members, and 
a brief statement of the work which the association has done in the 
last five years? 

" Also, will you kindly let me know what consideration has been 
given to your results by the Department of Education — the Board of 
Superintendents and the Board of Education? 

" I am sending a letter like this to the president of each of the volun- 
tary associations of teachers, so far as we know what these associations 
are. I shall be greatly obliged to you for a reply at your earliest 
convenience." 

Replies were received from eighteen associations. While certain of 
these organizations have as an avowed object the protection and ad- 
vancement of the material interests of their members, the majority aim 



Recommendations for Reorganisation 175 

(2) At the present time the extent to which the members 
of the teaching and supervisory staff (district superintend- 
ents, directors, and principals) are permitted to participate 

to promote the educational interests of the schools. It is clearly evi- 
dent from the statements made as to the objects and work of the asso- 
ciations having a distinctly professional aim, that a genuine effort has 
been made to assist in the solution of a large number of the internal 
problems of the schools, but that the school authorities have not sought 
to utilize the large amount of energy and interest available. The fol- 
lowing paragraphs from the replies are significant in this connection : 

(a) " Just what the reception of such resolutions was by the Board 
of Superintendents or Board of Education is hard to say. We do not 
know. In general, the communications have received consideration 
which has in all probability been much oftener favorable than unfavor- 
able, though not by any means universally so." 

(b) " Some of our recommendations were adopted by the authorities; 
but these were mainly on matters of minor importance — matters of 
routine administration. Recommendations on such matters as salaries, 
school organization, courses of study, and the like, were seldom if ever 
adopted wholly ; they were received usually with a promise of consider- 
ation, and possibly exerted some influence in determining the final dis- 
position of the matter." 

(c) " From the Board of Education we asked for the appointment 
of as many men as possible in December, IQII, to avoid the reduction 
of the Equal Pay schedules. This request was granted. We have asked 
many other favors for the schools, which we have generally received. 
Save for the passing of the Equal Pay schedules (in which the Board 
of Education reduced by nearly one-third (%) the salaries of men here- 
after to be employed in the elementary schools), the Board of Educa- 
tion has always given our requests most considerate and respectful 
attention. 

" The Board of Superintendents has, on the other hand, preferred to 
deal with . . . always as individuals. Our Association is loyal to the 
Board of Education and to the Board of Superintendents, but with no 
reciprocal action on the part of the latter." 

(d) " So far as any evidence has come to us, no attention (not even 
acknowledgment) has been paid by the Superintendents to any of the 
above." 

(e) " Our Association has had about five hundred members each year, 
and our work has been — Opposition to a decrease in the salaries of 
our members in order to secure 'Equal Pay' — A study of Teachers' 
Ratings and Promotions, Clerical Work, Discipline, Correlation between 



1/6 City School Supervision 

in the making of the internal poHcy of the school system is 
wholly within the personal choice of the City Superintend- 
ent or the Board of Superintendents. If participation is 
desired, it is requested or commanded. It is not one of the 
rights and obligations of the members of the teaching and 
supervisory staff. A truly progressive educational policy 
zvithin the school system requires that cooperation he legal- 
ised. No school system fulfils its existence under a control 
that is feudal in character. 

Three principal aspects of this Supervisory Council may 
be considered briefly: First, its motive; second, its organi- 

Elementary and High Schools, and Improvements in the Course of 
Study. 

" I regret to state that very little consideration has been given us in 
the above matters." 

(f) "We have published a number of reports, one on the course of 
study for elementary schools, one on the necessity for men teachers, 
one on supervision, one on congestion in the city schools, and others. 
I cannot recall that one of these reports ever received the slightest con- 
sideration on the part of the present administrative officials of the 
Board of Education, although most of these efforts were most favor- 
ably and widely commented upon." 

(g) " About five years ago we received a formal request from Super- 
intendent . . . that we formulate a course of study. To this end we 
devoted several regular and extra meetings, for at least a year, and, 
after considerable discussion and labor, agreed upon a course of 
study. . . . 

" This plan was submitted to Superintendent . . . and to ... , but no 
action was taken by them. In fact, it was never heard of afterward." 

(h) " So far as I recall, no attempt was made to improve conditions; 
some think merely because the suggestion originated at the bottom in- 
stead of at the top of the school system." 

(i) " But within the past five or six years,"^ recommendations and sug- 
gestions addressed to the City Superintendent have received little or 
no recognition — frequently not even acknowledgment. In some cases, 
however, our suggestions have seemed to cause the authorities at Fifty- 
ninth Street to act, though we have not received credit for starting the 
action." 

(j)" Every recommendation our association has made to these 
bodies has been received in the most kindly spirit, and has always been 
given the most careful consideration." 



Recommendations for Reorganisation 177 

zation and operation; third, the dangers inherent in it to 
the supervisory and teaching staff of the pubHc school 
system. 

Our democratic ideal, if it is to persist, must be embodied 
in the institutions of our society rather than vaguely ex- 
pressed in the commonplace epigrams of our language. 
What more appropriate institution for this embodiment 
than the public schools ? Thus far the mythical democracy 
of the school has centered itself upon children. There is, 
however, a democracy of the school that comprehends the 
workers with children as well as the children themselves. 
Both teachers and pupils must be included in the conception 
of the free school ; otherwise, distortion of the aim of edu- 
cation results. The school system cannot teach and cannot 
vitalize democracy with children free and teachers en- 
chained. Through a representative Supervisory Council a 
partial realization, at least, of the ideal of the democratic 
school is possible. It is the one agency that will permit the 
conservation and the constructive utilization of the best 
skill of teachers and supervisors for the benefit of schools 
and of children. 

The Supervisory Council represents a practical ideal. If 
boards of education and city superintendents really want the 
supervisory and teaching staffs to be organized in such a 
way as to provide for a larger and more effective partici- 
pation in the making of internal educational policies of the 
schools, this can readily be accomplished. The most fre- 
quent objections to such a council, that it might be too large, 
that it might have functions that it could not well perform, 
and that such a form of school control has not yet been de- 
veloped, in no wise touch the fundamental principle involved. 

My own conception of the Supervisory Council is not 
that of the " advisory " council. A properly constituted 
Supervisory Council would consist of a permanent repre- 
sentative body of teachers and educational directors with 
legalised powers and functions ; not subject to political in- 
terference under the guise of retaining to the people or to 



178 City School Supervision 

persons vested rights and privileges; nor dependent in the 
scope and character of its activities upon the benevolent pa- 
ternalism of the Board of Education. Without permanent 
authority it will have no real responsibility. Without re- 
sponsibility it cannot be an element of strength in the struc- 
ture of the government of the schools. 

Notwithstanding a firm and well-grounded conviction as 
to the practicability and the inestimable worth of an educa- 
tional instrumentality such as the Supervisory Council pur- 
poses to be, continued observation and study of the current 
trend of public schools over the country compels the recog- 
nition of certain dangers inherent in such a council. The 
principal one of these dangers is to the profession of teach- 
ing itself, that it shall prove unequal to meet the larger 
responsibilities for the welfare of the public schools. For 
two decades now there has been an insistent, though almost 
entirely unsuccessful, effort on the part of the public school 
teachers of our urban centers for a larger collective freedom 
and a wider opportunity for individual initiative. Accom- 
panying this has been a plea to remove the work of teaching 
from beneath the over- weight of machinery and bureau- 
cracy. A rational development of the Supervisory Council 
would result in this collective freedom and in the stimula- 
tion of that individual skill and capacity now thought to be 
suppressed by the mechanism of the school. At the same 
time, the Supervisory Council would place the teachers of a 
city on trial for their independence. It would also place the 
Board of Education on trial to demonstrate the wisdom 
and honesty of its public trusteeship, and would test, more- 
over, the quality of the educational leadership of the City 
Superintendent. 

A second danger, none the less grave, to which the Super- 
visory Council may be subject, is that it may not be truly 
representative of the profession of teaching in its consti- 
tution and conduct; that it may fall under the control of 
cliques, of self-seekers, or of one of those active and icono- 
clastic groups to be found today in the public school ser- 



Recommendations for Reorganization 179 

vice of our larger cities. If the main effort of the Super- 
visory Council becomes centered in the attainment of the 
narrower personal interest of its members, and not in better 
teaching as the principal means to better education; if the 
Council becomes absorbed in compensation of teachers 
rather than competence of teachers as the greatest of pro- 
fessional issues, then it will never justify its existence nor 
be entitled to that genuine public confidence which will ever 
be its chief bulwark. 

The proposal for the Supervisory Council contemplates a 
reconstruction of the controlling forces of the public schools 
that will enable the development of a responsible freedom 
by those immediately charged w^ith the education of chil- 
dren. It is idealistic, it is experimental, but the tremendous 
importance of such an agency to vitalize and more fully 
utilize the teaching resources of every great school system 
justifies a thorough trial of its possibilities.^ 

RECOMMENDATION III 

That there he established, as an integral part of the sys- 
tem of school control, a Bureau, or Division of Investigation 
and Appraisal. 

This bureau or division should be in charge of a chief 
or superintendent who is directly responsible to the Board 
of Education, and should be organized in such a manner as 
to enable it to serve as the central agency for the gathering 
and interpretation of statistical and other data v^ith refer- 
ence to the schools ; and also for the carrying on of such 
investigations as are necessary for the rational develop- 
ment and expansion of the school system. It should bear 
the same general relation to the Department of Education 

* " In their present servitude to State or Church, educators are usu- 
ally unable to conceive what they would do in freedom." — W. E. 
Chancellor, " Motives, Ideals, and Values in Education," p. 104 ; also 
passim, especially Chapter X, pp. 115 ff., on The Subordination and 
Dependence of the School, — a chapter of classic worth. 



i8o City School Supervision 

as the existing Bureau of Municipal Investigation and Sta- 
tistics bears to the Department of Finance. 
The following arguments may be indicated : 

(i) The school system of the city suffers from a lack 
of definite, detailed knowledge of its own working and its 
own cost. As has already been pointed out/ the fundamen- 
tal importance of the inspectorial form of control has been 
recognized only to a very limited extent. And even where 
its importance is recognized, officials charged with the re- 
sponsibility for administrative or supervisory duty appraise 
their own performances. Investigation that is needed is not 
carried on at all. 

(2) It is evident that one of two things will result in the 
immediate future. Either the work indicated for this pro- 
posed bureau will be attempted by agencies outside of the 
school system, or else there must be established, within the 
school system, as an integral part of its organized control, 
an agency properly equipped with trained investigators, 
to set forth to the supervisory and administrative officials of 
the school system, and the people of the city, those essential 
facts absolutely necessary for the intelligent development 
of schools and of public sentiment. Of these alternatives 
it would seem that the latter is to be greatly preferred. No 
outside agency could carry forward the work of inspection, 
of formulating impartial judgments of results, and of pro- 
posing new procedures, without much friction and loss of 
energy. 

(3) The problems of public education in New York City 
are not conventional problems. Many of the more pressing 
ones are new in the social and educational world. They 
cannot be solved by preconceptions, or the showing of hands. 
In so far as is possible, the situation and causes that have 
generated these problems must be weighed and analyzed 
before rational and permanent solutions can be found. 

* See pp. 12-13. 



Recommendations for Reorganisation i8i 



RECOMMENDATION IV 

That the Board of Examiners be reorganised so as to pro- 
vide for nine members, including the City ^Superintendent of 
Schools, ex officio; the service of the eight appointed mem- 
bers to be arranged so as to permit each member to devote 
every fourth year to supervisory or other special duty in the 
school system. 

The eight appointed members should be divided into four 
classes of two each. The members of each class should be 
relieved, in regular rotation, from their immediate duties 
as examiners, and devote one year to some assignment that 
would bring them into direct contact with the schools and 
the teaching staff of New York City or with the schools of 
other localities and countries. Such a plan would mean 
that, during any year, there would be six active members of 
the board. We regard this recommendation by us as fun- 
damental to the continued effectiveness of the Board of 
Examiners, for the following reasons : 

( 1 ) It would inhibit the well-recognized tendency of such 
examining bodies to become isolated from the situations 
under their control. 

(2) It would permit the members of the board to study 
the needs of instruction to the end of bringing about more 
effective relationships between the formal examinations for 
licensing and the performances within the school. 

(3) It would provide for a higher degree of specializa- 
tion of effort on the part of the members of the board. The 
range and variety of examinations now necessary to be 
given to determine the special qualifications of teachers are 
large enough to tax the capacity of six examiners. 



Appendices 



APPENDIX A 

BY-LAWS GOVERNING THE ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS 

Previous to January i, IQ12, the organization and super- 
vision of elementary schools, as provided for by the by-laws 
of the Board of Education, were as follows: ^ 

Organization of Elementary Schools 

"Sec. 51. I. Each elementary school shall be divided 
into classes. A class shall be understood to mean the num- 
ber of pupils, whether of like grade or not, placed under the 
care of one teacher. 

" 2. For purposes of organization and supervision, ele- 
mentary schools shall be divided into the following orders : 

First Order : Schools having forty-eight or more 
classes. 

Second Order : Schools having from twenty-eight to 
forty-seven classes. 

Third Order : Schools having from twelve to twenty- 
seven classes. (When necessary a group of small 
schools may be regarded as a school of the third 
order. ) 

Fourth Order : Schools having from six to eleven 
classes. 

Fifth Order: Schools having less than six classes. 

"3. The number of classes in a school shall be deter- 
mined by the Board of Superintendents. The number of 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, 1911, pp. 65 ff. 
i8s 



1 86 City School Supervision 

teachers shall not exceed the number of classes except as de- 
termined in this section. Subject to the approval and direc- 
tion of the Board of Superintendents, the principal shall 
assign teachers to class duty, unless increase or diminution 
of salary is involved in such assignment. 

" 4. All schools of the first, second, and third orders shall 
be placed under the administration of a principal (a person 
holding a principal's license), who shall not be required to 
teach a class, but this provision as to license shall not affect 
the status of persons appointed as principals prior to Feb- 
ruary 3, 1902, and now serving in such capacity. 

" 5. Each school of the fourth order (unless grouped, as 
provided in subdivision 2 of this section) shall be placed 
in the charge of a teacher, with the rank of assistant to 
principal, who may be required, at the discretion of the 
Board of Superintendents, to teach a class. Such teacher 
in charge shall hold an assistant to principal (head of de- 
partment) or a higher license, and shall be regularly ap- 
pointed for the district in which such school of the fourth 
order is situated, and shall be assigned to the charge of such 
school by the Board of Superintendents. . . . 

" 6. Schools of the fifth order (unless grouped, as pro- 
vided in subdivision 2 of this section) shall be in charge of 
a teacher assigned by the Board of Superintendents, who 
shall be designated the senior teacher. . . . 

" 7. In schools of the first order, containing fifty-eight 
or more classes, two teachers in excess of the number of 
classes may be appointed, in schools of the first order con- 
taining less than fifty-eight classes, and in schools of the 
second and third orders, one teacher in excess of the number 
of classes may be appointed ; such teachers shall teach classes 
in the absence of class teachers, and shall perform such 
clerical work as the principal may determine. A person 
holding a substitute license, or a higher license, but not eli- 
gible for appointment as a regular teacher, may be assigned 
by the Board of Superintendents as an additional teacher 
for a specified period, not to exceed one year. (As amended 



Organisation of Elementary ScJiools 187 

May 27, 1903; January 22, 1908; January 13, 1909; and 
November 24, 1909, to take effect January i, 19 10.) 

" 8. In schools of the first order two assistants to the 
principal, and in schools of the second order one assistant 
to the principal, may be appointed, who shall perform such 
supervisory, teaching, and clerical work as the principal, 
subject to the approval of the Board of Superintendents, 
shall direct. In a school of over sixty-seven classes a third 
assistant to the principal may be appointed. Such assistant 
to the principal shall hold a head of department or a higher 
license. 

" 9. In schools of the third order, in which one principal 
has charge of an elementary school and a high school de- 
partment, there may be one assistant to principal for the 
elementary school, if it has twelve or more classes." 

10 

II 

12 

13 

Section 51 of the by-lazus (subdivisions 2, 5, 4, 5, 6, 7, B, 
and g), as amended December 2/, 1911, and January 10, 
1912, became effective January i, 1912} 

" 2. When necessary, a group of schools may be regarded 
as one school organization. 

*' 3. The number of classes in a school shall be determined 
by the Board of Superintendents. The number of regular 
teachers, including the number of teachers of special 
branches who may be assigned to service exclusively in a 
given school, shall not exceed the number of classes, except 
as determined in this section. Subject to the approval and 
direction of the Board of Superintendents, the principal 
shall assign teachers to class duty, unless increase or dimi- 
nution of salary is involved in such assignment. 

" 4. A school having eighteen or more classes, unless 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, 191 1, pp. 65 ff. 



1 88 City School Supervision 

grouped with other schools, as provided in subdivision 2 of 
this section, shall be placed under the administration of a 
principal (a person holding a principal's license, or who was, 
prior to January i, 19 12, officially recognized as an elemen- 
tary school principal), who shall not be required to teach 
a class, 

" 5. A school having from six to seventeen classes, in 
which there is any grade above the 6B, unless grouped with 
other schools, as provided in subdivision 2 of this section, 
shall be placed in charge of a head teacher, who shall be 
relieved from teaching a class, or of an assistant to principal 
(head of department), or a person holding a higher license. 
A school having from six to seventeen classes of grades 
below the 7A, unless grouped with other schools, as pro- 
vided in subdivision 2 of this section, shall be placed in 
charge of an assistant to principal (head of department), 
or a person holding a higher license, who shall be desig- 
nated as the teacher in charge, and who may be required, 
at the discretion of the Board of Superintendents, to teach 
a class. 

" 6. A school having fewer than six classes, unless 
grouped with other schools, as provided in subdivision 2 of 
this section, shall be placed in charge of a regular teacher, 
who shall be designated as the senior teacher. Whenever 
the number of classes in a school shall be increased above 
the limit named in this subdivision, the assignment and 
designation of the person in charge of such school shall 
immediately terminate. 

" 7. To schools having twelve or more classes, one teacher 
in excess of the number of classes, such teacher to be known 
as an additional teacher, may be assigned ; to schools having 
fifty-eight or more classes, two teachers in excess of the 
number of classes may be assigned ; such additional teachers 
shall teach classes in the absence of class teachers, and shall 
perform such clerical work as the principal may require. A 
person holding a substitute license, or a higher elementary 
school license, may be assigned as such additional teacher. 



Organization of Elementary Schools 189 

The assignment of all such additional teachers shall be for 
a specified period, not to exceed one year. 

" 8. In schools having twenty-eight or more classes one 
assistant to principal and in schools having forty-eight or 
more classes two assistants to principal may be appointed, 
who shall perform such supervisory teaching and clerical 
work as the principal shall direct, subject to the approval 
of the Board of Superintendents. (As amended January 
10, 1912.) 

" 9. In schools having from twelve to twenty-seven 
classes, in which one principal has charge of an elementary 
school and a high school department, there may be one 
assistant to principal for the elementary school if it has 
twelve or more classes." 



APPENDIX B 

SALARY schedules: SUPERVISORY STAFF OF ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS ^ 

OLD PRIOR TO JANUARY I, I912 

Elementary Schools — Principals and Heads of 
Departments 

" 8. Principals and branch principals of schools of not 
less than twelve (12) classes, including schools having high 
school departments, shall be paid in accordance with the 
following schedule: 

Schedule I 

(a) (b) 

Year of Service Women Men 

First $1,750 $2,750 

Second 2,000 3,000 

Third 2,250 3,250 

Fourth 2,500 3,500 

"The minimum salary for women shall be $1,750; the 
maximum salary for women shall be $2,500; the rate of 
annual increase shall be $250. The minimum salary for 
men shall be $2,750, the maximum salary for men shall be 
$3,500; the rate of annual increase shall be $250. No in- 
crease for any year, however, shall be made unless the ser- 
vice of the principal or branch principal shall have been 
approved, after inspection and investigation, as fit and 
meritorious by a majority of the Board of Superintendents. 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, 191 1, pp. 113 ff. 
190 



Salary Schedules 191 

" A principal of a school with a high school department, 
having supervision of not less than twenty-five teachers in 
the aggregate (elementary and high school), shall receive, 
in addition to the salary provided in Schedule I, the sum of 
$500 per annum. Whenever, by reason of consolidation, 
or other cause, such school shall cease to be a school of the 
kind described in this paragraph, such additional salary shall 
cease. (This paragraph was adopted December 12, 1906, 
to take effect February i, 1907.) 

" 9. Teachers in charge of schools of the fourth order — 
less than twelve (12) classes but not less than six (6) 
classes, and assistants to principals (heads of departments) 
— shall be paid in accordance with the following schedule : 

Schedule II 

Year of Gross Service (a) (b) 

Ninth $1,400 $2,100 

Tenth 1,500 2,250 

Eleventh 1,600 2,400 

"The minimum salary for women shall be $1,400; the 
maximum $1,600; and the rate of annual increase $100. 
The minimum salary for men shall be $2,100; the maxi- 
mum $2,400; and the rate of annual increase $150. 

" No person shall be appointed under, or promoted to. 
Schedule II, or have a claim to salary therein, who has not 
had at least eight (8) years of experience as a class teacher. 

" In an independent school of the fifth order (less than 
six (6) classes) a senior teacher, duly designated as such, 
if a female, shall receive, in addition to the regular salary, 
$100 per annum while serving in such capacity." 

(As amended May 2y, 1903, and December 27, 1905.) 

New 

Under the schedides of teachers' salaries adopted by the 
Board of Education, pursuant to the provisions of Chapter 



192 City School Supervision 

po2 of the Law of igii {Equal Salary Law), the following 
apply to the supervisory staff of elementary schools: ^ 

"13. Principals of schools of eighteen (18) or more 
classes, including- schools having high school departments, 
shall be paid in accordance with the following schedule : 

Schedule A 

Year of Service 

First $2,300 

Second 2,540 

Third 2,780 

Fourth 3,020 

Fifth 3,260 

Sixth 3;5oo 

{Schedule II, May 17, 1911.) 

" Under this schedule the minimum salary shall be 
$2,300; the maximum $3,500; and the rate of annual in- 
crease $240. No increase for any year, however, shall be 
made unless the service of the principal or branch prin- 
cipal shall have been approved, after inspection and investi- 
gation, as fit and meritorious by a majority of the Board 
of Superintendents. 

" A principal of a school with a high school department, 
having supervision of not less than twenty-five teachers in 
the aggregate (elementary and high school), shall receive, 
in addition to the salary provided in Schedule A, the sum 
of $500 per annum. Whenever, by reason of consolida- 
tion, or other cause, such school shall cease to be a school 
of the kind described in this paragraph, such additional 
salary shall cease. 

" The principal of a probationary school shall be paid in 
accordance with Schedule A. (This paragraph was adopted 
December 27, 191 1.) 

" Schools having from six (6) to seventeen (17) classes 
in which there are grades above the 6B shall be placed in 

* By-laws of the Board of Education, 1911. Supplement, pp. 8-10. 



Salary ScJicdiiles 



193 



charge of a head teacher, who shall be relieved from teach- 
ing a class, or of an assistant to principal (head of depart- 
ment), or a person holding a higher license, and the per- 
son so placed in charge shall be paid in accordance with 
Schedule B3. (As amended December 27, 191 1.) 

" Schools having from six (6) to seventeen (17) classes, 
provided such schools have no grade above the 6B, shall be 
placed in charge of a person holding a license as assistant 
to principal (head of department), or a higher license, who 
shall be paid in accordance with Schedule B3. 

" In an independent school of less than six (6) classes a 
senior teacher, duly designated as such, shall receive, in 
addition to the regular salary, compensation at the rate of 
$100 per annum while serving in such capacity." 



Schedules B3 and B4 



.^3 

Assistants 
to Principals 
Year of (Heads of 

Service Departments) 

First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 

Ninth $2,100 

Tenth 2,250 

Eleventh 2,400 

Twelfth 

Thirteenth 

Fourteenth 

Fifteenth 

Sixteenth 



B4 

Head 
Teachers 



$1,060 
1,180 
1,300 
1,420 

1,540 
1,660 
1,780 
1,900 
2,020 
2,140 
2,260 



Increment $150 $120 

[See Schedules I (a), I (b), I (c), attd I (i), May 17, igii.] 



194 C^'^3' School Supervision 

" Under Schedule B3, the minimum salary shall be $2,100 
per annum; the maximum $2,400; and the rate of annual 
increase $150. No one shall be entitled to be paid under 
said schedule who has not been credited with eight years 
of experience in elementary schools. 

" Under Schedule B4 the minimum salary shall be $1,069 
per annum; the maximum $2,260; and the rate of annual 
increase $120. No one shall be entitled to be paid under 
said schedule who has not been credited with five years of 
experience in elementary schools. 

"Assistants to principals (heads of departments) shall 
be appointed only to supervise grades below the 7A. 

" Head teachers shall be appointed only for service in 
connection with the teaching of English, mathematics, his- 
tory and civics, and geography and science in schools hav- 
ing not less than twelve classes in the seventh and eighth 
year grades, organized on the departmental plan." 



Director's and Assistant Director's ^ Report for the Month ending 



APPENDIX C 

FORM FOR MONTHLY REPORT OF DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

The City of New York 

School Districts 

Borough of 

District Superintendent's 
' Director's 
Inspector's J •••191 

Schools visited for purposes of supervision 
during the month. 

Conferences with principals. 

(Give time, place, and subject of conferences.) 

Conferences with teachers. 

(Give time, place, and subject of conferences.) 

Duties performed on special assignment. 

Absences from duty. 

(Give dates of absence and duration of absence 
in each case.) 

Results accomplished by principals in 
accordance with reconmiendations. 



New recommendations. 



Signed 

(District Superintendent. 
Director of 
Assistant Director of . . , 
Inspector of 

195 



APPENDIX D 

minutes of the board of superintendents 
Department of Education, the City of New York 



Thursday, January 19, 191 1 



A stated meeting of the Board 'of Superintendents was 
held at 2 o'clock p. m. at the hall of the Board of Education. 
Present — Mr. Maxwell, Chairman, and Messrs. Ed- 
son, Haaren, Meleney, O'Brien, Shallow, Stevens, 
Straubenmuller, and Walsh. 

The Minutes of the meeting held on January 5th were 
approved. 

Communications 

The Chairman presented the following: 

i.^ From the Secretary of the Board of Education, trans- 
mitting copies of certain reports which were adopted by that 
board at its meeting on the nth inst. 

Ordered to be noted in the Minutes and placed on file. 

2. From Agatha Branigan, of Public School 43, Brook- 
lyn, requesting the board to reconsider its action of October 
6th last in disapproving her services for the seventh year. 

Referred to Mr. Meleney. 

3. From Clara C. Schmitt, of Public School 170 Pri- 

* Each separate item has been numbered for convenience of refer- 
ence. — E. C. E. 

196 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 197 

mary, Manhattan, requesting a leave of absence for one 
year from January loth, for restoration of health. 

4. From Jessie N. Goode, of Public School 102, Brook- 
lyn, requesting a leave of absence from February 6th until 
June 1st, for purposes of study. 

5. From the Secretary of the Teachers College, Columbia 
University, writing at the request of E. A. Farnsworth, a 
teacher in Public School 12, Richmond, suggesting that her 
leave of absence be extended until June ist, in order that 
she may complete the course of study for a special diploma 
in domestic science. 

6. From Associate City Superintendent Shallow, with 
reference to a slight accident which occurred in the cooking 
room of Public School 168 Girls, Manhattan, and submit- 
ting a suggestion that wire gauze netting be placed in front 
of the cooking stoves and that a fire extinguisher be pro- 
vided for each cooking room. 

The foregoing communications were referred to the Com- 
mittee on School Management. 

7. From the Secretary of the Board of Education, re- 
ferring for report, by direction of the Committee on Elemen- 
tary Schools, a communication from Max Aronson and 
other residents in the vicinity of Public School 29, Man- 
hattan, requesting the establishment of an 8B class in that 
school, in order that their children may complete the elemen- 
tary school course in that school and not be obliged to go 
to Public School 44, which is some distance from their 
homes. 

Referred to Mr. Straubenmuller. 

8. From Imogene E. Hawes, of Public School 78, Man- 
hattan, requesting that her leave of absence for restoration 
of health be terminated and that she be permitted to resume 
duty on February ist. 

Referred to Mr. Edson. 

9. From Kate A. Condon, principal of Public School i, 
Brooklyn, requesting a change in the assignment of an addi- 
tional teacher in that school. 



198 City School Supervision 

Referred to the Committee on Nomination, Transfer, and 
Assignment. 

10. From the Edison Manufacturing Company, offering 
at a special price their Underwriter Projector for producing 
moving pictures. 

From The Laemmle Film Service, submitting a list of 
moving pictures for use in the public schools. 

The foregoing communications were referred to the Com- 
mittee on Course of Study. 

11. From Anna L. Phillips, applying for the position of 
principal of the proposed new high school to be known as 
the Bay Ridge High School, Brooklyn. 

Referred to the Committee on High Schools, 

12. From Robert Jansen, stating that he and members of 
his family have seen groups of children waiting around two 
public schools between 8.15 and 8.30 o'clock in the morning, 
when the doors were closed, and suggesting that the doors 
be opened in order that the children may enter the schools 
when they arrive early. 

Referred to the appropriate division superintendents for 
investigation as to the schools mentioned, and to the Com- 
mittee on School Management to report if any additional 
amendments to the by-laws are necessary, or what steps 
should be taken to prevent these occurrences in other parts 
of the city. 

Reports of Standing Committees 

The Committee on High Schools submitted the following 
reports : 

13. (i) Recommending the granting of leaves of ab- 
sence without pay to certain teachers in high schools. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

14. (2) Relative to the accommodations in the Commer- 
cial High School, and recommending the establishment of 
a commercial course of study for boys in the Bush wick 
High School, with the following resolution attached: 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 199 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
recommends that pupils applying for admission 
to the Commercial High School of Brooklyn, who 
reside in the eastern part of that borough, may- 
be admitted to the Bushwick High School, and 
that the commercial course which is now offered 
therein may be opened to boys. 
Adopted. 

15. (3) Recommending the transfer of certain high 
school teachers. 

The principals of the high schools affected were notified 
to be present, in accordance with Section 1090 of the 
Charter. 

The resolution attached to the report of the Committee 
was adopted. 

16. (4) Recommending the nomination of certain per- 
sons for service in the high schools. 

The principals of the high schools affected were notified 
to be present, in accordance with Section 1090 of the 
Charter. 

This report was very carefully considered, and certain 
changes were decided upon. 

The resolution attached to the report of the Committee, as 
changed, was adopted. 

The Committee on Training Schools submitted the fol- 
lowing reports : 

17. (i) Recommending the nomination of a certain per- 
son for service in the Brooklyn Training School for 
Teachers. 

The principal of this school was notified to be present, 
in accordance with Section 1090 of the Charter. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

18. (2) Recommending the denial of an application from 
a teacher in the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers to 
be excused with pay for certain absence in December last. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 



200 City School Supervision 

19. (3) Recommending- the excuse with pay of certain 
absences during December last of teachers in training 
schools for teachers. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 
The Committee on Evening Schools submitted the fol- 
lowing reports : 

20. (i) Recommending the nomination of a certain per- 
son for service in an Evening High School. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

21. (2) Relative to the sessions of Evening School 88, 
Queens, with the following resolution attached: 

Resolved, That, in accordance with Section 55, 
paragraph 3, of the by-laws of the Board of Edu- 
cation, the Committee on Special Schools be, and 
it is hereby, requested to permit the sessions of 
Evening School 88, Queens, to be held on Tues- 
day, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday evenings, 
omitting Monday evening, on account of a lecture 
which is given by the Department of Lectures on 
said evening, which would interfere with the 
proper conduct of the evening school. 
Adopted. 

22. (3) Recommending the designation of a certain 
teacher as registrar in an evening school, with the following 
resolution attached : 

Resolved, That Joseph Busto be, and he is 
hereby, designated to act as registrar in Evening 
School 158, Brooklyn, for the season of 19 lo- 
1911. 
Adopted, 

23. The Committee on Compulsory Education submitted 
a report containing the following resolutions : 

Resolved, That the service of Josephine Fer- 
nandes, attendance officer, be approved as fit and 



Mimites of Board of Superintendents 201 

meritorious for the sixth year, to take effect Jan- 
uary I, 191 1. 

Resolved, That the service of David Wangrow, 
attendance ofificer, be approved as fit and meri- 
torious for the first year, to take effect January 
17, 1911. 
Adopted. 

The Committee on Vacation Schools and Playgrounds 
and Recreation Centers submitted the following reports : 

24. (i) Recommending the nomination of certain per- 
sons for service in Evening Recreation Centers, to fill 
vacancies caused by resignations. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

25. (2) Recommending the establishment of a license for 
teachers of singing in recreation centers, with the following 
resolution attached : 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
hereby recommends to the Board of Examiners 
that a license be granted, to be known as " Teacher 
of Singing," in the recreation centers. 
Adopted. 

Mr. Haaren requested to be recorded as voting in the 
negative upon the foregoing resolution. 

26. (3) Recommending an amendment to the by-laws 
to provide for the opening of school playgrounds from 3.30 
to 6 o'clock p. M., and compensation for teachers who 
serve in them. 

Referred to the Committee on School Management. 

27. (4) Recommending the nomination of a teacher of 
swimming. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 
The Committee on Vocational Schools and Classes for 
Defectives submitted the following reports : 

28. (i) Relative to the admission of certain children to 
the East Side Free School for Crippled Children, which is 



202 City School Supervision 

an annex to Public School 2, Manhattan, and suggesting 
that the Committee on Elementary Schools be asked to ren- 
der a decision in the matter. 
Laid over. 

29. (2) Relative to the assignment of certain persons to 
service in the Manhattan Trade School for Girls, with the 
following resolution attached: 

Resolved, That the action of the Acting Prin- 
cipal of the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in 
assigning Viola Coen and Nellie G. Newman as 
substitute teacher clerks be, and it hereby is, 
approved. 
Adopted. 

The Committee on School Management submitted the 
following reports : 

30. (i) Recommending the granting of a leave of ab- 
sence without pay to a teacher of physical training. 

Referred again to the Committee. 

31. (2) Recommending the disapproval of the action of 
Local School Boards in approving applications from certain 
teachers in elementary schools to be excused with pay for 
certain absences during 19 10. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

32. (3) Recommending the excuse with pay of certain 
absences during 19 10 of teachers in the elementary schools. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

33. (4) Recommending the excuse with pay of certain 
absences during the current year of teachers in elementary 
schools. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

34. (5) Recommending the granting of leaves of ab- 
sence without pay to certain teachers in elementary schools. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

35. (6) Recommending certain amendments to the by- 
laws, with the following resolutions attached : 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 203 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
recommends to the Board of Education the repeal 
of Section 94a of the by-laws. 

Resolved, That Subdivision i of Section 66 be 
amended by striking" therefrom in the list of voca- 
tional or trade school licenses the line reading: 
" Teacher of non- vocational subjects." 
Adopted. 

36. The Committee on School Management presented 
reports from the division superintendents upon the services 
of certain teachers in the public schools, pursuant to the 
provisions of Section 109 1 of the Charter. 

After some consideration the services of the following- 
named teachers were declared fit and meritorious for the 
vears indicated : 



Year 

7th 
1 2th 
1 2th 
12th 



1 2th 

12 th 

7th 

7th 

7th 

7th 

7th 

1 2th 

1 2 th 

4th 

1 2th 
7th 
7th 
ist 
7th 





Borough of Manhattan 


School 


Name 


30 


I. Irving Bamett 


30 


Eugenia L. Loos 


ISO 


Loretta I. Tartt 


loP. 


Carolyn E. Field 




Borough of Queens 


2 


Cara Carson 


4 


Helen M. Hoffman 


7 


Ellen I. San try 


17 


William C. Mayer 


78 


Cora A. Hare 


20 


Eliakim R. Pierce 


27 


Grace L. Hulse 


49 


Elsie M. Thorne 


SO 


Leonore Pedley 


German 


Hugo Felsner 




Borough of Richmond 


IS 


Mary Harrigan 


18 


Lucy S. Seaman 


20 


William HaUoran 


German 


Nathan Wolf 


13 


Etta G. Connolly 



204 C'^^y School Supervision 

The services of the following-named teachers were 
disapproved : 





Borough of Manhattan 




School 


Name 


Year 


150 
183 


Catherine T. M. Corrigan 
BeUa Cohn 


1 2th 
7th 


10 


Borough of Brooklyn 
Charles H. Carroll 


7th 


5 


Borough of Richmond 
Esther Smith 


7th 



The case of Margaret M. Walsh, of Public School 
70, Manhattan, was referred to Mr. Shallow for special 
report. 

37. The Committee on Nomination, Transfer, and As- 
signment submitted the following reports : 

(i) Recommending the transfer of certain elementary 
school teachers. 

The principals and district superintendents were notified 
to be present, in accordance with Section 1090 of the 
Charter. 

38. Miss Ella A. Froeligh, assistant to principal in Pub- 
lic School 3, Manhattan, appeared before the board and 
protested against her transfer from that school, giving her 
reasons therefor. 

William E. Grady, principal of Public School 64, Man- 
hattan, was present and was heard with reference to the 
proposed transfer of an assistant to principal to his school. 

After some discussion it was decided to strike the name 
of Ella A. Froeligh from the report. 

39. Peter C. Ritchie, assistant to principal in Public 
School 3, Manhattan, appeared before the board and re- 
quested that he be not transferred from that school. 

Michael E. Devlin, principal of Public School 8, Man- 
hattan, was present and was heard with reference to the 
proposed exchange of Ambrose Cort for Peter C. Ritchie. 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 205 

. The report was very carefully considered, and certain 
changes were decided upon. 

The resolution attached to the report, as changed, was 
then adopted. 

40. (2) Recommending the nomination of certain per- 
sons as teachers in the elementary schools. 

The principals and district superintendents were notified 
to be present, in accordance with Section 1090 of the 
Charter. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

41. (3) Recommending the transfer of certain elemen- 
tary school principals. 

John H. Grotecloss, Jr., principal of Public School 11, 
Manhattan, was present and was heard with reference to his 
proposed transfer to the principalship of Public School 26, 
Manhattan. 

The resolution attached to the report of the committee 
was adopted. 

42. (4) Recommending the nomination of a certain per- 
son as principal of an elementary school. 

The resolutions attached to this report were adopted. 

43. (5) Recommending the transfer of Sidney M. Fuerst 
from Public School 55, Brooklyn, to the principalship of 
Public School 2 Boys, Manhattan. 

Mr. Haaren raised the point of order that this proposed 
transfer does not properly come before the board, and that 
if Mr. Fuerst is a principal in excess in Public School 55, 
Brooklyn, he should be assigned to another school by the 
City Superintendent of Schools. 

The Chairman ruled that this point of order was not 
well taken. 

The resolution attached to the report of the committee 
was then adopted. 

44. (6) Recommending the nomination of certain per- 
sons as teachers of shop work in the elementary schools. 

The resolutions attached to this report were adopted. 



2o6 City School Supervision 

45. (7) Recommending the nomination o£ certain per- 
sons as assistants to principals in elementary schools. 

The principals and district superintendents were notified 
to be present, in accordance with Section 1090 of the 
Charter. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

46. (8) Recommending the granting of the request of a 
certain Schedule IV teacher to be assigned to duty in 
Schedule III. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

47. (9) Recommending that a certain teacher now serv- 
ing in Schedule III be restored to duty in Schedule IV. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

48. (10) Recommending the transfer of a certain Sched- 
ule IV teacher to the rank and pay of Schedule III. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

Reports of Superintendents on Matters Referred 

49. Mr. Meleney, to whom was referred, on December 
ist, the communication from the principal of Public School 
24, Brooklyn, requesting permission to change the hours 
of session of the afternoon kindergarten class in that school, 
submitted the following: 

Resolved, That the principals of the following 
schools in Brooklyn be permitted to begin the 
sessions of the afternoon kindergartens at 12.30 
and close the same at 3 o'clock : 

Public Schools 24 and 31. 
Adopted. 

50. Mr. Shallow, who was requested, on January 5th, 
to investigate and report upon the services of Katherine 
Ryan, of Public School 122, Manhattan, submitted a report 
in regard to the matter, and recommended the approval 
of Miss Ryan's services. 

It was regularly moved and adopted that the services of 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 207 

Katherine Ryan, of Public School 122, Manhattan, be ap- 
proved as fit and meritorious for the 7th year. 

51. Mr. Edson, to whom was referred, at this meeting, 
the request of Imogene E. Hawes to have her leave of ab- 
sence terminated, submitted a report containing the follow- 
ing resolution: 

Resolved, That the leave of absence, without 
pay, granted to Imogene E. Hawes, of P. S. 78, 
Manhattan, from October i, 1910, to March 31, 
191 1, be, and the same is hereby, terminated on 
January 31, 191 1. 
Adopted. 

New Business 
Mr. Edson ofifered the following : 

52. (i) Resolved, That the principals of the 
following schools be, and they hereby are, author- 
ized to change the number of classes in their 
schools, as indicated below: 

Borough of The Bronx 

Number of 

Classes Changed Additional Classes 

P. S. FROM to Classes Discontinued 

12 23 24 I lA- 6B 

37 SI 51 4 E 4 lA- 6B 

53- (2) A report recommending the reassignment of cer- 
tain teachers in Public School 43 Primary, Manhattan. 
Approved. 

54. Mr. Shallow submitted a report recommending the 
reassignment of certain teachers in Public Schools 74 Pri- 
mary, 121, and 135, Manhattan. 

Approved. 

55. Mr. Shallow presented a communication from Dis- 
trict Superintendent Jameson with reference to the services 



2o8 City School Supervision 

of Mabel L. Hooper, of Public School i68 Primary, 
Manhattan. 

Mr. Shallow moved that the board reconsider its action 
of November 3d in disapproving without prejudice the ser- 
vices of Mabel L. Hooper, of Public School 168 Primary, 
Manhattan, for the 7th year. 

This motion was duly seconded and adopted. 

Mr. Walsh moved that the services of Mabel L. Hooper, 
of Public School 168 Primary, Manhattan, be approved as 
fit and meritorious for the 7th year, as of November 3d, 
1910. 

This motion was duly seconded and adopted. 

56. Mr, Walsh submitted a report recommending the 
reassignment of a teacher in Public School 158, Brooklyn. 

Approved. 

57. Mr. Straubenmuller offered the following: 

Resolved, That the principals of the following 
schools, and they hereby are, authorized to change 
the number of classes in their schools as indicated 
below : 

Borough of Manhattan 





Number 


OF 








Classes Changed 


Additional 


Classes 


P. s. 


FROM 


TO 


Classes 


Discontinued 


31 


54 


52 


.... 


I lA, I 5A 


88 


43 


40 


.... 


31A 


160 


SO 


49 


.... 


"1 1A-6B 


114 


61 


61 


13A 


• 18A 



Adopted. 

58. Mr. Meleney offered the following: 

(i) Resolved, That the principals of the fol- 
lowing schools be, and they hereby are, author- 
ized to change the number of classes in their 
schools, as indicated below: 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 209 



Borough of Brooklyn 

Number of 

Classes Changed Additional Classes 

P. S. from to Classes Discontinued 

IS 32 34 i3B,i7A-8A 

68 25 25 2 E 2 1A-6B 



155 49 5° I SB 

Adopted. 

59. (2) A report recommending the reassignment of cer- 
tain teachers in Public Schools 8, 20, 24, 51, and 68, 
Brooklyn. 

Approved. 

60. (3) A report recommending the discontinuance of 
the study of German in the 8 A grade in Public School 43, 
Brooklyn, with the following resolution attached : 

Resolved, That in Public School 43, Brooklyn, 
the teaching of German in 8A grade be discon- 
tinued, and the time usually devoted to that sub- 
ject be assigned to geography and English. 
Adopted. 

The Board adjourned at 6.20 o'clock p. m., to meet on 
Thursday, January 26th, at 2 o'clock p. m. 

Thomas E. Bussey, 

Secretary. 



APPENDIX E 

minutes of the board of superintendents 
Department of Education, the City of New York 



Thursday, October 26, 191 1 



A stated meeting of the Board of Superintendents was 
held at 2 o'clock p. m. at the hall of the Board of Education. 

Present — Mr. Maxwell, Chairman, and Messrs. Ed- 
son, Haaren, O'Brien, Shallow, Straubenmuller, and 
Walsh. 

Absent — Messrs. Meleney and Stevens, on special 
duty. 

Consideration of the Minutes of October 13th was 
deferred. 

Communications 

The Chairman presented the following: 

i.^ From the following teachers, requesting leaves of 
absence without pay : 

Timothy J. Dugan, of Public School 109, Manhattan, 
from November i, 191 1, to August 31, 1912, for purposes 
of study, 

Thomas J. Whalen, of Public School 6 Boys, Manhattan, 
for one year, for restoration of health. 

Jennie M. Dietz, of Public School 172, Manhattan, for 
one year from November i, for restoration of health. 

Frances Broadfoot, of Public School 38, Bronx, from 
October 15, 191 1, to October 15, 1912, for restoration of 
health. 

* Numbers added for convenience of reference. — E. C. E. 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 211 

. Mary L. Connolly, of Public School 23, Manhattan, until 
January i, for restoration of health. 

2. From the Chairman, submitting a draft of a pro- 
posed amendment to Section 74 of the by-laws, relative to 
teachers of special subjects in the School for the Deaf, 
which amendment has been approved by the Board of 
Examiners. 

The foregoing communications were referred to the Com- 
mittee on School Management, 

3. From the Secretary of the Board of Education, giv- 
ing notice, by direction of the Committee on Buildings, that 
four additional class rooms in Public School 28, Brooklyn, 
are ready for use. 

Referred to Mr. Walsh. 

4. From the Secretary of the Board of Education, with 
reference to a request made upon the Committee on Build- 
ings for additional closet space for the use of the Evening 
School in Public School 29, Manhattan. 

Referred to the Committee on Evening Schools, 

5. From Thomas O. Baker, principal of Public School 
44, Brooklyn, requesting that the teacher of cooking as- 
signed to that school be not transferred to another school. 

Referred to the Committee on Nomination, Transfer, and 
Assignment. 

Reports of Standing Committees 

The Committee on High Schools submitted the following 
reports : 

6. ( I ) Recommending the granting of a leave of absence 
without pay to a certain high school teacher. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

7. (2) Recommending the addition of certain items to 
the list of supplies for use in high schools, with the follow- 
ing resolution attached : 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
recommends the addition of the following to the 
Supply List for High Schools : 



212 City School Supervision 

Holsel, Wandhilder; Farbendruck, Serie I, II, 
IV, II Blatter zu 140 : 93 cm, und ein Doppelblatt 
(No. 16) auf Leinwand mit Staben . . . M7.25 
(.No. 16 ... Mi 1.25). I. Friihling, 2. Som- 
mer, 3. Herbst, 4. Winter, 5. Inneres eines Bauern- 
hof es, 6. Das Gebirge, 7. Der Wald, 8. Die Grosse- 
stadt, 13. Wohnung, 14. Der Hafen, 15. Der 
Hausbau, 16. Das Berg und Hutterwerk. 

Cartes Murales Vidal-La Blache 

France. 2. Cours d'Eaux, 3. Relief dti Sol, 4. 
Departements, 5. Villes, 6. Canaux, 7. Chemins de 
Fer, 8. Agriculture, 9. Provence, 10. Frontiere du 
Nord-ouest, . . . (Im. 20 :1m.) 

Armand Colin-Jenkins 

P err of et Fau 

CJ Histoires en images sans paroles en tableaux 
muraux, 25^ x 20 in., in colors. Stout Card- 
board. . . . Vol. du Commentaire a L' usage du 
Prof. 

Hachette . . . Brentano 

Vietor; Systematic Table of French Sounds, 30 x 

38>4in. 

Also a handy table in reduced size to paste in 

pupils' books, 2s. 

Hachette . . . Brentano 

Vietor, Lauttafeln 

Deutsch und Franzosisch, 3 farbig ... 100 : 130 
cm. auf Leinen mit Staben . . . M.4,00. 

Elwert, Marburg . . . Stechert, N. Y. 

PLANS AND PICTURES OF PLACES 

Gehhardt, Plan von Berlin, 170 : 130 cm. . . . 

M II, 25 Koehler, Leipzig . . . Brentano, Stechert. 

Holzel, Paris, Serie III, No. 9. 140 : 93 cm. 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 213 

Leinwand mit Staben . . . M8, 20. Stechert. 

Holzel, Berlin, Serie V, No. 17, 140:03 cm. 
Leinwand mit Staben . . . M8, 20. 

Images Geographiques de la France 

22 tableaux muraux (Im. 06 X Om, 75) en 
couleurs P. P. Foncin . . . Delagrave, Paris. 
Jenkins, N. Y. Le Mont Blanc, glacier des Alpes 
(good for German also). 

Holzel, Geographical Pictures 

The Rhine, etc. Hachette . . . Jenkins. 

Soide or Perry: Pictures of 
Cologne Cathedral 
Strasburg Cathedral 
Heidelberg Schloss 
Rhine Castles 

Soide or Perry: Pictures of 
Louvre 
Tuileries 
Pantheon 

Notre Dame de Paris 
Tour Eiffel et Trocadero 
Sacre Cceur 
Boulevards 
Bourse 
Opera 

Hotel de Ville 
Cathedrals of 

Rouen 

Tours 

Amiens 

Rheims 
El Escorial 
Versailles 
Alhambra 
Palace of Madrid 



214 City School Supervision 

MAPS OF COUNTRIES 

Kiepert's France. Rand, McNally & Co. 
Kiepert's Germany. Rand, McNally & Co. 
Kiepert's Switzerland. Rand, McNally & Co. 
Kiepert's Spain. Rand, McNally & Co. 
Adopted. 

8. (3) Recommending the approval of the assignments 
of certain persons to take charge of the annex of the Bush- 
wick High School located in Public School 69, Brooklyn, 
in the absence of the principal. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted, 

9. The Committee on Training Schools submitted a re- 
port recommending the approval of the assignments of cer- 
tain pupil teachers in the Brooklyn Training School for 
Teachers to substitute duty in the public schools. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 
The Committee on Nomination, Transfer, and Assign- 
ment submitted the following reports: 

10. (i) Recommending the reassignment of a certain 
teacher of French, with the following resolution attached : 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
hereby reassigns the following-named teacher of 
French, as indicated below : 





Present Assignment 


Proposed Assignment 


Naivtf, 


Districts 


Districts 


Julie Terpant 


13. 14 


14, 17 



II. (2) Recommending the assignment of a certain 
teacher of cooking, with the following resolution attached: 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
hereby assigns to duty the following-named 
teacher of cooking, as indicated below : 
Name Districts 

Mary E. Tripp 43. 44 

Adopted. 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 215 

12. (3) Recommending the termination of the assign- 
ments of certain substitutes as additional teachers, with the 
following resolution attached : 

Resolved, That the assignments of the fol- 
lowing-named substitutes as additional teachers 
be, and they hereby are, terminated from the 
dates given: 

Name District School Date 

Helen I. Williams 2i 39 P. October 16, 191 1 

Frances F. Joseph 25 2 November i, 1911 

Adopted. 

13. (4) Recommending the assignment of certain sub- 
stitutes as additional teachers, with the following resolution 
attached : 

Resolved, That the following-named substitutes 
be, and they hereby are, assigned as additional 
teachers, as indicated below, to take effect on the 
dates given, and to continue during satisfactory 
service, but not beyond January 31, 1911; sub- 
ject, however, to cancellation by this board prior 
to that date : 



Name 


District 


School 


Date 


Natalie Waldstein 


20 


159 


October 20, 1911 


Marie N. Sheridan 


25 


2 


November i, 19 11 


Philip V. Van Arsdale 


26 


32 


October 23, 19 11 


Grace A. Hatfield 


39 


144 


October 19, 191 1 



Adopted, 

14. (5) Relative to the request for the assignment of a 
substitute teacher of physical training to the office of the 
assistant director of physical training in Brooklyn. 

Referred to Mr. Walsh to investigate as to the necessity 
for this assignment. 

The Committee on Evening Schools submitted the follow- 
ing reports : 

15. (i) Recommending the nomination of certain per- 
sons for service in Evening Elementary Schools. 



2i6 City School Supervision 

The resolution attached to each of these reports was 
adopted. 

1 6. (2) Recommending the nomination of certain per- 
sons for service in Evening High Schools. 

The resolution attached to each of these reports was 
adopted. 

17. (3) Recommending the authorization of additional 
classes in Evening Elementary Schools. 

The resolution attached to each of these reports was 
adopted. 

18. (4) Recommending the authorization of additional 
classes in the East Side and the Morris Evening High 
Schools. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

19. (5) Recommending the authorization of the nomina- 
tion of a general assistant for service in Evening School 
145, Brooklyn. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

20. (6) Recommending a change in the hours of session 
of an Evening Elementary School, with the following reso- 
lution attached : 

Resolved, That the Committee on Special 
Schools be, and it is hereby, requested to permit 
Evening School 158, Brooklyn, to begin its ses- 
sions at 7.45 P. M. and to close at 9.45 p. m. 
Adopted. 

21. The Committee on Compulsory Education submitted 
a report upon the services of a certain attendance officer, 
with the following resolution attached: 

Resolved, That the service of Edward J. Mc- 
Manus, attendance officer, be approved for the 
sixth year, to take effect October 26, 191 1, 
Adopted. 

22. The Committee on Course of Study submitted a 
form of letter explaining the ratings appearing on pupils' 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 217 

report cards, and recommended that 100,000 copies of this 
letter be printed and distributed to certain parents. 

This matter was very carefully considered and the rec- 
ommendation of the Committee was disapproved. 

23. The Committee on School Management submitted 
reports of Division Superintendent Haaren upon the ser- 
vices of certain teachers in the public schools, pursuant to 
the provisions of Section 1091 of the Charter. 

The following resolutions were adopted : 

(a) Resolved, That the Board of Superintend- 
ents hereby disapproves, without prejudice, the 
services of the teacher whose name is given be- 
low, for the year indicated : 

Borough of Richmond 
School Name Year 

16 Ida M. Eglinton 7th 

(b) Resolved, That the Board of Superintend- 
ents hereby approves the services of the teachers 
whose names are given below as fit and meritori- 
ous, for the years indicated : 

Borough of Queens 

School Name Year 

4 Josephine Potter 12th 

83 Clara A. Dreyfoos 7th 

83 Cornelia J. Heyse 12th 
86 Maude B. Van Keuren 7th 
II Grace Bellinger 7th 
II Laura D. Vores 12th 

84 Cornelia E. Gayler 12th 
34 Grace L. Clark 12th 
49 William L. Swayer 7th 
79 Emily A. Nelson 7th 
39 Daisy E. Wikoff 7th 

56 Angela G. Grady 12th 

57 Henrietta Bergen 7th 
75 Jennie L. Potter ist 
90 William E. Hendrie 7th 



2i8 City School Supervision 

The Committee on School Management submitted the 
following reports : 

24. ( I ) Recommending the denial of an application from 
a certain teacher for a leave of absence without pay. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 

25. (2) Recommending the excuse with pay of certain 
absences during the current year of teachers in elementary 
schools. 

The resolution attached to each of these reports was 
adopted. 

26. (3) Recommending the disapproval of the action of 
certain Local School Boards in approving applications from 
teachers to be excused with pay for certain absences. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted, 

27. (4) Recommending the granting of leaves of absence 
without pay to certain teachers. 

This report was carefully considered. 

Mr. Walsh moved that the report be divided and that 
the leaves of absence for restoration of health, as indicated 
in the report, be granted. 

This motion was duly seconded and adopted. 

Mr. Walsh moved that the applications for leaves of ab- 
sence for purposes of study be referred again to the Com- 
mittee. 

This motion was duly seconded and adopted. 

28. (5) Relative to the suggestions of the Association of 
Women Principals with reference to " Teachers' Visiting 
Days " and " Teachers' Visits to Home." 

After some discussion it was decided to lay this report 
over for further consideration at a subsequent meeting. 

29. The Committee on Vacation Schools and Play- 
grounds and Recreation Centers submitted a report recom- 
mending the nomination of certain persons for service in 
Evening Recreation Centers. 

The resolution attached to this report was adopted. 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 219 



New Business 

Mr, Straubenmuller submitted the following reports: 
30. (i) Recommending the resumption of the evening 
sessions in Public School 120, Manhattan, with the follow- 
ing resolutions attached : 

Resolved, That the Board of Education be re- 
quested to approve the recommendation of the 
Board of Superintendents that two evening school 
sessions be held each week in Public School 120, 
Borough of Manhattan, beginning on Thursday, 
November 9, 191 1, said sessions to begin at 8 p.m. 
and to end at 10 p. m., on the evenings of Monday 
and Thursday of each week ; and that said sessions 
shall be in charge of a person holding the license 
of an 8B teacher, or a higher license, or license as 
principal of a recreation center. 

Resolved, That four teachers be assigned to 
teach in such evening sessions. 

Resolved, That the principal of Public School 
120, Borough of Manhattan, Olive M. Jones, be 
authorized to hold one other evening session in 
each week, the holding of such extra session to be 
optional with Miss Jones, and such session to be 
under her general care and direction; no remu- 
neration to be given to Miss Jones or any of her 
assistants in connection therewith. 

Resolved, That the Committee on Care of 
Buildings be requested to provide janitor service 
for Pulolic School 120, Borough of Manhattan, 
during the evening sessions. 

Resolved, That the evening sessions in Public 
School 120, Borough of Manhattan, continue until 
such date as the Board of Superintendents may 
determine. 
Adopted. 



220 City School Supervision 

31, (2) Recommending the designation of certain per- 
sons for service in the evening sessions in Public School 
120, Manhattan, with the following resolutions attached : 

Resolved, That the Board of Education be re- 
quested to approve the recommendation of the 
Board of Superintendents that Robert B. Brodies 
be designated to take charge of the evening ses- 
sions of Public School 120, Borough of Man- 
hattan, and that he be paid $5.00 for each evening 
of actual service, to take efifect November 9, 191 1. 

Resolved, That the Board of Education be re- 
quested to approve the recommendation of the 
Board of Superintendents that the following 
teachers be assigned to assist in the evening ses- 
sions of Public School 120, Borough of Manhat- 
tan, to give instruction in the subjects indicated 
after their respective names, and that said teachers 
be paid at the rate provided for teachers in the 
evening elementary schools ($3,000), to take 
effect November 9, 191 1 : 

Name Subject 

A. Benjamin Martin "j Shop work 

Patrick H. Gallagher 1 I 

Jacob Holman f Physical training, including games, athletics, 

William Jansen J apparatus work, etc. 

:^2. (3) Recommending the reassignment of certain 
teachers in Public Schools 2 Primaiy and no, Manhattan. 

Approved. 

33. (4) Recommending changes in the number of classes 
in certain schools, with the following resolution attached : 

Resolved, That the principals of the following 
schools be, and hereby are, authorized to change 
the number of classes in their schools, as indicated 
below : 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 221 



Borough of Manhattan 

Number of 
Classes Changed Additional Classes 

P. S. FROM TO Classes Discontinued 

2 P. 40 41 I C 

42 51 52 I I A 

113 22 22 I E 13B 

It was regularly moved and adopted that the foregoing 
resolution be amended by striking therefrom, the line relat- 
ing to Public School 2 Primary. 

The Chairman put the question upon the resolution as 
amended and it was decided in the affirmative. 

34. The Chairman called attention to the large num- 
ber of pupils on part time in Public School 144, Brooklyn, 
and to the number of vacant sittings in Public School 167, 
Brooklyn, and suggested three plans for reducing this part 
time. 

District Superintendent Lyon was present and was heard 
with reference to the plans proposed by the Chairman, 
and also suggested other means for reducing this part time. 

The matter was referred to Mr. Walsh for report at 
next meeting. 

Mr. O'Brien offered the following: 

35. (i) Resolved, That the principal of Public 
School 69, Manhattan, be, and he hereby is, di- 
rected to discontinue one 4B class, thereby reduc- 
ing the total number of classes in that school to 
thirty-eight. 

Adopted. 

2,6. (2) Resolved, That the application to es- 
tablish a fourth kindergarten class in Public 
School 17, Manhattan, be, and hereby is, denied. 

Adopted. 



222 



City School Supervision 



Mr. Walsh offered the following : 

37. (i) Resolved, That the principals of the 
following schools be, and they hereby are, author- 
ized to change the number of classes in their 
schools as indicated below : 



Borough of Brooklyn 



P. S. 

102 
124 



Number of 
Classes Changed 
from to 

36 38 

24 24 



Additional 
Classes 
I D, I E 

I ungraded 



Classes 
Discontinued 



I 1A-6B 



Classes 

Discontinued 

I 1A-6B 



Number of 

Classes Changed Additional 

P. S. from to Classes 

144 66 65 

160 29 30 I 1A-6B 

167 46 51 3 1A-6B, 2 kdgn. 

Adopted. 

38. (2) Whereas, The authorities of the He- 
brew Orphan Asylum are willing to supply two 
rooms for the instruction of some of their chil- 
dren now attending Public School 144, Brooklyn, 

Resolved, That the Committee on Buildings 
be requested to supply for each room a teacher's 
desk, a book closet, and blackboards. 
Adopted. 

39. (3) Resolved, That the principal of Public 
School 153, Brooklyn, be permitted to change the 
rating of Anna V. Curtis from C to B. 

Adopted. 

40. (4) Whereas, There are now two teachers 
of cooking in excess in Districts 2 and 3, and one 
teacher in excess in Districts 6 and 7, 

Resolved, That the Committee on Nomination, 
Transfer, and Assignment be empowered to make 
the necessary transfers to any existing vacancies. 
Adopted. 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 223 

Mr. Straubenmuller requested to be recorded as vot- 
ing in the negative upon the foregoing resolution. 
Mr. Shallow submitted the following reports: 

41. (i) Recommending the removal of certain fences 
between the yards of Public School 49, Manhattan, etc., 
with the following resolution attached: 

Resolved, That the Board of Superintendents 
recommends to the Committee on Buildings that 
the wooden fences dividing the boys' yard from 
what was formerly a girls' yard, on the East 38th 
Street side of Public School 49, Manhattan, be 
removed so as to make one large yard for the 
boys, and that four settees on the west side of the 
platform of the Assembly Room on the fourth 
floor of Public School 49, Manhattan, be removed. 
Adopted. 

42. (2) Recommending changes in the number of classes 
in certain schools, with the following resolution attached : 

Resolved, That the principals of the following 
schools be, and they hereby are, authorized to 
change the number of classes in their schools, as 
indicated below : 

Borough of Manhattan 

Number of 
Classes Changed Additional Classes 

P. S. from to Classes Discontinued 

18 43 42 I 4A 

49 39 37 I iB, I 6A 

109 65 66 I lA 

Adopted. 

43. (3) Recommending the equipment of certain rooms 
in Public School 59, Manhattan, as offices for the principal 
and her assistants, with the following resolution attached: 



224 City School Supervision 

Resolved, That the Committee on Buildings of 
tlie Board of Education be notified that the Board 
of Superintendents approves of the fitting up 
of two unused class rooms in Public School 59, 
Manhattan, as offices for the principal and her 
assistant, and that the small offices heretofore in 
use be fitted up for use as teachers' rooms. 
Adopted. 

44. (4) Recommending the reassignment of a teacher in 
Public School 59, Manhattan. 
Approved. 

Mr. Haaren offered the following : 

45. (i) Resolved, That the principals of the 
following schools be, and they hereby are, author- 
ized to change the number of classes in their 
schools, as indicated below : 

Borough of Queens 

Number of 
Classes Changed Additional Classes 

P. S. FROM to Classes Discontinued 

34 10 II I lA-iB 

45 14 15 I 1A-6B 

58 32 36 4 1A-6B 

59 35 33 2 kdgn. 

64 II 92 kdgn. 4 1A-6B 

66 13 14 I kdgn. 

Adopted. 

46. (2) Resolved, That the Committee on By- 
laws and Legislation be requested to render an 
opinion as to the right of the Board of Superin- 
tendents to continue in service as teacher-in- 
charge of Public School 37, Borough of Queens, 
Catherine M. Sheehan, when the school has 12 
classes, and when such teacher-in-charge thereby 



Minutes of Board of Superintendents 225 

becomes entitled to the rank and pay of a 
principal. 
Adopted. 

Mr. Edson submitted, on behalf of Mr. Meleney, a 
report containing the following resolution: 

47. Resolved, That the principal of Public 
School 147 Girls, Brooklyn, be, and she hereby 
is, authorized to establish one additional special 
grade E class, thereby increasing the total num- 
ber of classes in that school to fifty-seven. 

Adopted. 

Mr. Edson offered the following : 

48. (i) Resolved, That the principals of the 
following schools be, and they hereby are, author- 
ized to increase the number of classes in their 
schools, as indicated below : 

Borough of Manhattan 





Number of 






Classes Changed 


Additional 


P. s. 


from 


TO 


Classes 


52 


10 


II 


I iB 




Borough 


OF The Bronx 




4 


64 


65 


I lA 


23 


71 


72 


I lA 


29 


49 


SO 


I lA 


Adopted. 









49. (2) A report recommending the following apportion- 
ment of rooms in the new building (Public School 102) to 
be erected on the site on 113th Street, east of Second 
Avenue, Manhattan : 

I room for kindergarten boys and girls. 
14 rooms for boys and girls of the ist and 2d years. 
12 rooms for boys and girls of the 3d and 4th years. 
10 rooms for boys and girls of the 5th and 6th years. 



226 City School Supervision 

I room for an ungraded class. 
I room for an anaemic class. 

Auditorium on the ground floor; gymnasium (2 
units); bath; playground; roof playground. 
Approved. 

50. Mr. Straubenmijller moved the nomination of 
Albert W. Garritt as Assistant Director of Shop Work. 

It was regularly moved and adopted that the motion 
offered by Mr. Straubenmuller be referred to the Com- 
mittee on Nomination, Transfer, and Assignment. 

The Board adjourned at 5.50 o'clock p. m., to meet on 
Thursday, November 2d, at 2 o'clock p. m, 

Thomas E. Bussey, 

Secretary. 



APPENDIX F 

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS — LICENSE NO. I 



Examination for License No. i 

January, 19 id 

History and Principles of Education 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No. . . . 

1. (a) Name five habitual motor-reactions which children 

should acquire in school. (5) 
(b) With reference to penmanship, show how a teacher 
may properly inculcate a habit. (5) 

2. (a) Name five practises or procedures on the part of 

teachers which commonly lead to inattention. (5) 
(b) Show how interest promotes attention, and how 
attention conduces to interest. Illustrate. (6) 

3. Explain and illustrate a teacher's use of the following 

principles in the subject, or subjects, indicated: 

(a) Visualization — Spelling. 

(b) Apperception — Drainage of New York State. 

(c) Generalization — Forming the plural of nouns. (9) 

4. Explain and exemplify two of the following terms as 

employed in logic : 

(a) Inference. 

(b) Syllogism. 

(c) Method of agf cement. (10) 

5. State the main subjects of study in the case of two of 

the following: 
(a) The schools for the Athenian youth. 

227 



228 City School Supervision 

(b) Monastic schools. 

(c) Schools of the Jesuits, 

(d) Eton or Rugby. 

6. Outline Spencer's discussion (a) as to what knowledge 
is of most worth; or (b) as to proper modes of 
punishment. (lo) 

Examination for License No. i 

January, 1910 

Methods of Teaching 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No. . . . 

1. (a) What is meant by a unit of measure? (3) 

(b) State and solve a problem in which the number 3 
may be used as a unit. (8) 

2. Show by the aid of lettered diagrams that multiplier and 

multiplicand (when neither is concrete) can be 
interchanged without altering the product. (10) 

3. (a) Explain, as to a class, "borrowing" in subtrac- 

tion. (8) 
(b) Find the difference between 178 and 342 by the 
Austrian method, and explain briefly each step 
of the process. (8) 

4. State a practical problem (a) in discount, (b) in com- 

mission, (c) in percentage (to find what per cent 
one number is of another). (9) 

5. Choosing any decisive battle, describe a proper method 

of treating it as a topic in history. (12) 

6. Show how to lead children to interpret contour lines 

on a map. Illustrate with a diagram. (8) 

7. Specify the topics which should in general be comprised 

in the study (a) of a river; (b) of a city. (12) 

8. Give the topics to be covered in a lesson (for pupils 

about 13 years old) on the structure and func- 
tions of the skin. (12) 



Examination for License No. i 229 

Examination for License No. i 

January, 191 i 

History and Principles of Education 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No. . . . 

1. "All nervous centers have then, in the first instance, 

one essential function, that of * intelligent ' action. 
. . . Like all other organs, however, they evolve, 
. . . the lower centers passing downward into 
more unhesitating automatism, and the higher 
ones upward into larger intellectuality." — James. 

(a) Define and illustrate the meaning of nervous centers, 

lower centers, higher centers. (6) 

(b) Illustrate " the lower centers passing downward into 

more unhesitating automatism." (2) 

(c) Illustrate " the higher ones (passing) upward into 

larger intellectuality." (2) 

2. Explain the following, and illustrate them from prob- 

able class-room experience : 

(a) Impulse; 

(b) Association of ideas; 

(c) Motivation; 

(d) Self-activity; 

(e) Apperception. (10) 

3. (a) What is meant by objective teaching? (7) 

(b) Show how it may properly be employed in teaching 
the multiplication of a fraction by a fraction. (8) 

4. (a) Explain and exemplify the following terms as em- 

ployed in logic : Method of difference, hypothesis, 
immediate inference. (9) 
(b) Criticize, with reasons, the following as a definition : 
(4) " A square has four sides and right angles." 

5. Respecting the dictum, " Things before words," give an 

application advocated (a) by Comenius; (b) by 
Pestalozzi; (c) by Rousseau. (12) 



230 City School Supervision 

Examination for License No. i 

January, 191 i 

Methods 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No. ... 

1. (a) State (in the order in which they should be taken up 

in class work) the types of examples in division 
which involve one or more decimal numbers^ 
Give reasons for the order chosen. (6) 

(b) Upon what principle should the explanation of the 

process of dividing an integer by a decimal be 
based? (5) 

(c) Give an example of this kind, and show how it should 

be worked. (6) 

2. (a) Supposing a pupil finds difficulty in remembering the 

product of 7 by 9, suggest a way by which he 
may be helped to derive it. (4) 
(b) Suggest a device for helping a pupil to remember 
what 17 — 8 is. (4) 

3. (a) What should constitute the introduction, and the 

first lesson, on Alaska, in a fifth-year class ? Give 
reasons. (10) 
(b) Give, in the correct order, the topics of the succeed- 
ing lessons required to complete the subject with 
this class. Justify the order of your topics. (6) 

4. (a) Describe the position of the pen, the right hand, the 

left hand, the body, and the feet in practising 
free-arm movement penmanship, (5) 

(b) What are the " elements " of which script letters are 

formed? (3) 

(c) Using for each a single line on the paper, execute 

free-arm-movement penmanship drills on the let- 
ters m, o, and r. (3) 

5. (a) Set forth fully what is meant by " teaching " a sub- 

ject. (10) 



Examination for License No. i 231 

(b) Illustrate the answer to (a) by describing how the 
teaching of a topic in history, such as the causes 
of the American Revolution, may best be carried 
on. (10) 

" Horace Mann laid hold of the spirit of the inductive 
method of teaching." — Hinsdale. 

(a) What is the gist of the inductive method? (6) 

(b) Instance topics in arithmetic, grammar, and nature 

study to which this method is naturally applicable, 
and show how the inductive process is involved 
in the teaching of each topic. (12) 



Examination for License No. i 

January, 1911 

English 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No .... 

1. Eternal spirit of the chainless mind! 

2. Brightest in dungeons, Liberty, thou art. 

3. For there thy habitation is the heart — 

4. The heart which love of thee alone can bind; 

5. And when thy sons to fetters are consigned — 

6. To fetters, and the damp vault's dayless gloom — 

7. Their country conquers with their martyrdom, 

8. And Freedom's fame finds wings on every wind. 

9. Chillon ! thy prison is a holy place, 

10. And thy sad floor an altar, for 't was trod 

11. Until his very steps have left a trace, 

12. Worn as if thy cold pavement were a sod, 

13. By Bonnivard! — May none those marks efface! 

14. For they appeal from tyranny to God. — Byron. 

(a) Give the syntactical relationship of each subordinate 

clause in the second sentence. (3) 

(b) Give the syntactical relationship of brightest (line 



22^2 City School Supervision 

2) ; alone (line 4) ; tell the object of can bind 
(line 4). (3) 

(c) Give the meaning in its connection of consigned 

(line 5) ; efface (line 13) ; appeal (line 14). (3) 

(d) Point out, in this passage, an example of periodic 

construction; also one of loose construction. (3) 

(e) Write with diacritical marks : dungeons, vault, efface, 

tyranny, God. (Give the key for your use of 
diacritical marks.) {2}^) 

2. Correct two errors in each of the following sentences, 

and give a reason for each correction: (6) 

(a) One cannot help but admire that sort of a man. 

(b) I don't know as I will be admitted. 

(c) Last night's performance was as bad as the night 

before. 

3. (a) Give the plural of wharf, solo, spoonful, court- 

martial, t (i. e., the letter t). (2i/^) 
(b) Give the possessive, singular and plural, of hero, 
baby, it, son-in-law. (4) 

4. The terms " objective," " etymological," " inductive," 

are used to designate methods of teaching the 
meaning and use of words. Describe briefly each 
of these methods, giving one or more words to 
which the method is adapted. (9) 

5. Describe four distinct types of exercises (or drills) that 

may profitably be employed in teaching beginners 
to read. Tell the purpose of each exercise de- 
scribed. (12) 

6. (a) Name three types of exercises in composition suit- 

able for a seventh-year class. 

(b) Give two appropriate subjects under each type. 

(c) Describe how the material for the composition under 

each title is to be gathered, developed, or pre- 
sented. (12) 



Examination for License No. i 233 

Examination for License No. i 

June, 191 i 

History and Principles 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No. . . . 

1. (a) What is an instinct ? ( i ) 

(b) Name eight instincts. (2) 

(c) Of what use in the disciplining of pupils is a 

teacher's knowledge of instincts ? Illustrate. (3) 

(d) Illustrate how, in a matter of class instruction, a 

teacher may appeal to a lower instinct; how, in 
the same case, the teacher may appeal to a higher 
instinct. (4) 

2. Explain the following and illustrate them from probable 

class-room experience : (8) 

(a) Arousing a motive by giving " an idea of the end." 

(b) Direct interest; indirect interest. 

(c) Deliberation. 

(d) Visualization. 

3. What is meant by generalisation as a " step " in teach- 

ing? Illustrate from a lesson in fractions. What 
is the value of this step? (9) 

4. Give three psychological reasons for using the black- 

board in the class room. (9) 

5. (a) State the rules of logical division. (2) 

(b) Distinguish, with the aid of examples, " distributed 

predicate " and " undistributed predicate." (4) 

(c) Throw the following into the form of a syllogism 

and criticize as reasoning: (4) 

" Dogs, not being cats, cannot climb trees." 

6. (a) Name any point of similarity that is to be found 

in the educational ideas of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, 
Herbart, Froebel ; and show how Herbart and 
Froebel applied the point in question. (6) 
(b) Name one distinguishing feature of the doctrine of 
each. (8) 



234 City School Supervision 

Examination for License No. i 

June, 191 i 

Methods of Teaching 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No, ... . 

1. (a) Make and solve a practical problem in each of the 

following types : Finding what fractional part 
one number is of another; finding a whole when 
a fractional part is given. (8) 

(b) Explain, as to pupils, the solution of the first prob- 

lem given in answer to (a). (4) 

(c) What is one of the types not mentioned under (a) ? 

Illustrate it. (4) 

2. (a) Show graphically that 3/5 (of i) is equal to 3-7-5. 

(6) 
(b) Describe how pupils should be taught the reduction 
of a common fraction to a decimal. Illustrate. 
(10) 

3. State and solve a practical problem (a) in finding the 

cost of goods that have been sold at a per cent of 
loss; (b) in finding the rate of interest; (c) in 
finding the area of a trapezoid. Use a drawing 
to illustrate (c). (12) 

4. (a) What is climate? (2) 

(b) State the conditions which affect or determine cli- 

mate. (8) 

(c) Show how pupils may be led to make correct infer- 

ences regarding the climate of two of the fol- 
lowing countries : England, Mexico, British 
Columbia, Brazil. (6) 

5. (a) What may be three legitimate purposes of reviews 

in the class room ? ( 3 ) 

(b) Describe three good methods of reviewing in his- 

tory. (6) 

(c) With reference to the history of the Civil War, show 



Examination for License No. i 235 

how these three methods of reviewing may prop- 
erly be used. (9) 
6. On each of two of the following topics plan a lesson, 
giving materials, experiments, and observations 
to be made from nature: (12) 

(a) The relation of sunlight to plant life. 

(b) The propagation or transmission of heat. 

(c) The structure, functions, and care of the teeth. 



Examination for License No. i 

June, 1911 

English 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No .... 

Note. — For each error in spelling or grammar half a 
credit will be deducted from the total obtained on 
this paper. 

I. Yes ! let the rich deride, the proud disdain. 

Those simple blessings of the lowly train; 
To me more dear, congenial to my heart. 
One native charm, than all the gloss of art. 
5 Spontaneous joys, where nature has its play, 
The soul adopts, and owns their first-born sway ; 
Lightly they frolic o'er the vacant mind, 
Unenvied, unmolested, unconfin'd. 
But the long pomp, the midnight masquerade, 
10 With all the freaks of wanton wealth array 'd, 
In these, ere triflers half their wish obtain, 
The toiling pleasure sickens into pain; 
And even while fashion's brightest arts decoy, 
The heart, distrusting, asks if this be joy. 

— Oliver Goldsmith. 
(a) Give the syntactical relationship of each subordinate 
clause in the selection. (5) 



236 City School Supervision 

(b) Give the syntactical relationship of disdain (line i) ; 

charm (line 4) ; gloss (line 4) ; unenvied (line 

.8). (4) . 

(c) Give the' meaning of deride (line i) ; train (line 2) ; 

congenial (line 3) ; gloss (line 4) ; spontaneous 
(line 5) ; owns (line 6) ; wanton (line 10) ; <irco3; 
(line 13). (4) 

2. Use the following words in sentences in a way to indi- 

cate their meaning: insidious, seditious, seden- 
tcLry, futile, senile. (5) 

3. Indicate by diacritical marks (or in some other way) 

the correct pronunciation of the following words : 
futile, longer, manger, wherewithal. (Give the 
key for your use of diacritical marks.) (4) 

4. Point out in detail the errors in the following sentences, 

and write the sentences in proper form: (6) 

(a) He don't fear me saying anything about it. 

(b) Approving of this idea, the wounded horse was 

killed at once and the march resumed. 

(c) When the chief engineer reached the wreck, he found 

that every one of the men had taken off their 
coats and went to work to clear the track. 

5. Tell how spelling should be taught in the lower grades. 

(8) 

6. Show how a teacher may advantageously employ the 

following in the teaching of reading to beginners : 
(a) motivation, (b) self-activity, (c) multiple 
sense appeal. (9) 

7. (a) Taking each of the following types of exercises in 

turn, give with reasons your opinion as to its 
educational value: (i) Transcription, (2) Dic- 
tation, (3) Reproduction, (4) Paraphrasing, (5) 
Drills in construction of sentences. (5) 
(b) Describe, with reasons, how an exercise in dictation 
should be conducted. (5) 

8. Write in muscular free-arm penmanship the first four 

lines of the selection quoted in Question i. (5) 



Examination for License No. i 2;^y 

Examination for License No. i 

January, 1912 

History and Principles 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No .... 

1. (a) State, and illustrate, the two main functions of the 

spinal cord. (2) 

(b) Contrast the functions of the brain with those of the 

spinal cord. (2) 

(c) What is aphasia, and how may it be accounted for 

physiologically ? ( i ) 

2. Explain the following and illustrate from probable 

class-room experience : (9) 

(a) Voluntary attention; non-voluntary attention. 

(b) " Development in perception really involves perceiv- 

ing nezu objects in the old. . . . We cannot con- 
tinue to perceive an object beyond a moment or 
two, unless we perceive it in a new manner." 

(c) Deductive reasoning. 

3. (a) State the uses of habit. (4) 

(b) Give four general directions for breaking a bad 
habit. (4) 

4. State the advantages and the disadvantages of concert 

recitation. (6) 

5. Describe and illustrate two general means of fixing 

points in the memory. (6) 

6. A scientist placed on a table some food of which roaches 

are fond and surrounded the food with a low 
wall of cardboard. He then put some roaches on 
the table ; they made straight for the food. He 
then put on the table other roaches, having first 
removed their antennae; these roaches did not 
seek the food, even though they wandered about 
quite close to it. 
What, if any, inference as to cause was the scientist jus- 
tified in drawing? 



238 City School Supervision 

What kind of reasoning and which "method " (i. e., of 
"agreement," of "concomitant variations," etc.) 
are involved? (4) 

7. Explain and illustrate these terms as used in logic : con- 

tradictory proposition; fallacy of undistributed 
middle. (6) 

8. (a)' Describe the education of girls at Sparta or at 

Athens in the fifth century b. c. (3) 
(b) Tell to what extent the Spartan education of boys 
made for the development of strong moral char- 
acter. Give reasons. (5) 

9. " Take example by the schools of the Jesuits, for better 

do not exist." — Bacon. 
Give facts in support of this statement. (8) 

Examination for License No. i 

January, 1912 

Methods 

Time, Two hours. Candidate's No .... 

1. In the case of the following processes, state and exem- 

plify modes of verifying or checking results 
which are suitable to pupils below the seventh 
year : 

(a) Addition (give two modes). (6) 

(b) Finding the whole when a fractional part is given. 

(4) 

(c) Reduction ascending. (4) 

2. " Since memory is served by multiple associations quite 

as well as by repetition, the drills employed should 
be varied in form, in content, and in mode of ap- 
plication. They should, moreover, be interesting 
to the children — perhaps by reason of their nov- 
elty, perhaps by affording an occasion for physi- 
cal activity, or an occasion for general emulative 



Examination for License No. i 239 

striving, perhaps by stirring a sense of mastery, 
or even that sense of solidarity which the soldier 
feels when his regiment moves with precision and 
* snap.' But in no event must drills become a 
mere routine, a tedious grind, a spiritless tread- 
mill. Let us speak, therefore, not of drill, but of 
drills:' 
In the light of the foregoing quotation, suggest three dis- 
tinct types of drills under each of the following 
heads: (a) counting, (b) multipHcation. (18) 

3. Taking some one activity, industry, or experience, as a 

center, construct about it four practical problems 
involving different applications of percentage. 
(16) 

4. (a) With respect to any two of the following topics, 

give an account of the points (or events) to be 
taught. (10) 
(b) With respect to one of the topics chosen, specify 
means for securing or exercising apperception, 
imagination, memory, (12) 
(i) Perry and the battle of Lake Erie (Grade 
5B). 

(2) The Five Nations (Grade 6A). 

(3) The Dred Scott decision (Grade 6B). 

(4) The House of Stuart (Grade 7B). 

(5) Results of the French and Indian War 
(Grade 8A). 

5. (a) With respect to the following topics, give an account 

of the points to be taught : ( 10) 
(b) Indicate the means that should be employed for test- 
ing the efifectiveness of the teaching of these 
points. (10) 

(i) United States: Transportation and com- 
merce by the great inland water routes 
(Grade 5A). 
(2) The protection of trees in cities. 



240 City School Supervision 

Examination for License No. i 
January, 19 12 

English 
Time, Two hours. Candidate's No. 



1. (a) Give the part of speech and the syntax of the itah- 

cized words: (6) 

It is not growing like a tree 
In bulk, doth make man better be, 
Or standing- long an oak (three hundred year) 
To fall a log at last, bald and sear ; 
A lily of a day 
Is fairer far in May, 
Although it fall and die that night — 
It was the plant and flower of light. 
In small proportions we just beauties see ; 
And in short measures life may perfect be. 

— Ben Jonson. 

(b) What does the phrase in bulk modify? What is 

the subject of doth make? (2) 

(c) Explain the meaning of the last two lines, and show 

their connection with the preceding part of the 
poem. (6) 

2. Point out each error in the following sentences, and 

write the sentences in proper form : 

(a) This law don't deprive any one of rights that they 

already possess. (4) 

(b) Approaching the city its first sight impressed me 

with the idea that it was not much of a place, the 
houses seemed sort of ugly and scattering. (8) 

3. Give the meaning of the prefixes found in the following 

words, and give for each another word contain- 
ing it: antagonist, concur, incumbent, abstain, 
impious. (5) 



Examination for License No. i 241 

Use the following words in sentences in such a way as 
will indicate clearly their meaning : 

(a) Evasion, duplicity, laconic, emigrant. (4) 

(b) Noxious, obnoxious; right, privilege; can but, can- 

not but. (6) 
Assuming, on the part of the class, a knowledge of " ad- 
jective phrase " (and " adverb "), tell how " ad- 
verbial phrase " should be taught. Illustrate. In- 
clude two types of drill exercises. (8) 

(a) What is meant by "phrasing" in reading aloud? 

Illustrate from a sentence of your own composi- 
tion (not less than twenty words). (3) 

(b) What are the causes of poor phrasing? (4) 

(c) Describe two exercises designed to teach young chil- 

dren to phrase correctly in reading aloud. (4) 



APPENDIX G 

FORMS FOR APPROVAL OF SERVICE: RENEWAL OF TEMPO- 
RARY LICENSES 

(a) Elementary Schools 
The Principal, when he has filled in his report, will forward this blank to his District 
Superintendent, who, after making his estimate, will transmit it to the City Superin- 
tendent of Schools. 

File No 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 

Report to the City Superintendent of Schools 

Record of M , P. S. No , Dist. No 

who applies for a Renewal of Temporary License 

from , igi. ., to , 191. . . 

PRINCIPAL'S REPORT 

Ability to comprehend instructions 

Ability to cooperate with other teachers 

Skill in blackboard work 

Skill in questioning , 

Skill in presentation . 

Use of objective illustration 

Power to interest 

Thoroughness of drill 

Self-control and manners 

Use of Enghsh language 

Use of voice 

Attendance 

Punctuality 

Personal tidiness 

Accuracy in keeping records and making reports 

Control of class 

Energy and success in self-improvement 



Principal P.S.No 

DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT'S ESTIMATE 



District Superintendent, 
DIVISION SUPERINTENDENT'S RECOMMENDATION 



Division Superintendent. 
191... 
242 



Forms for Approval 243 

(b) High and Training Schools 

N. B. — The Principal, when he has filled in his report, will forward this blank to the 
City Superintendent of Schools. 



File No. 



DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

^^fflGH^^ SCHOOLS, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 

Report to the City Superintendent of Schools 

Record of M 

^HiS^ School, Borough of .who 

jpplies for a renewal of Temporary h^J^ School License to teach 

from , igi. ., to , 191. . 



PRINCIPAL'S REPORT 



Ability to comprehend instructions 

Scholarship in special subjects 

Skill in statement 

Skill in questioning 

Power to interest 

Thoroughness in developing subject 

Use of objective illustration 

Thoroughness of drill 

Self-control and manners 

Use of voice 

Attendance 

PunctuaUty 

Accuracy in keeping records and making reports. 
Control of class 



Principal. 
DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT'S REPORT 



District Superintendent. 
ASSOCIATE CITY SUPERINTENDENT'S RECOMMENDATION 



Associate City Superintendent. 



244 (^^^y School Supervision 

(c) Teachers of Special Branches 

The Director, when he has filled in his report, will forward this blank to the District Super- 
intendent, who, after making his report, will transmit it to the City Superintendent of Schools. 

File No 



DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

SPECIAL TEACHERS, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 

Report to the City Superintendent of Schools 

Record of M . . 

Teacher of , Borough of 

District No who applies for a renewal of Temporary License to 

teach from igi... 

to 191... 

DIRECTOR'S REPORT 



Ability to comprehend instructions 

Knowledge of special subject 

Skill in statement 

Skill in questioning 

Ability to assist class teachers 

Self-control and manners 

Use of the EngHsh language 

Use of voice 

Control of pupils 

Energy and success in self-improvement . 
General remarks 



Director of 

DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT'S REPORT 



District Superintendent of 

DIVISION SUPERINTENDENT'S RECOMMENDATION 



Associate City Superintendent. 
.191... 



Forms for Approval 245 

(d) Kindergarten Teachers 

The Principal, when he has filled in his report, will forward this blank to the District 
Superintendent, who, after making his estimate, will transmit it to the Director of 
Kindergartens. 

File No 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 
Report to the City Superintendent of Schools 

Record of M , P. S. No , Dist. No 

who appUes for a Renewal of Temporary Kindergarten Li- 
cense from , 191. ., to , 191. .. 

Principal's Report 

Ability to comprehend instructions 

Educational use of gifts 

Educational use of occupations 

Ability in telUng stories 

Musical ability — A. Instrumental 

B. Vocal 

Ability to cooperate with other teachers 

Self-control and manners 

Daily preparation of work 

Accuracy in keeping and making reports 

Ability in leading children to form good habits 

What efiEort has applicant made to improve her scholarship and professional skill? .... 



Is applicant successful in conducting Kindergarten Mothers' Meetings?. 
General Remarks 



Principal of P. S. No 

District Superintendent's Report and Recommendations 



District Superintendent. 
Director's Report 



Director of Kindergartens. 
Division Superintendent's Recommendation 



Division Superintendent. 



246 City School Supervision 

(e) Principals and Assistant Principals 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

Principal, 
The District Superintendent, when he has filled in his report, will forward this blank 
to the City Superintendent of Schools. 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
the city of new york 
File No 

REPORT TO THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 

Record of M P. S , Dist. No 

Borough of , who applies for a renewal of 

License as (S^ to Principal) of an elementary school. 



LOCATION OF SCHOOL - DATES ^ 

From to. 

From to . 

From to. 



DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT'S REPORT 

1. What is the effect on the school of the applicant's examinations and inspections? 

2. Conferences with teachers — how and when conducted? 

Their efiects? 



3. (a) Has the applicant been successful in guiding and assisting weak or inexperi- 
enced teachers? 



(b) What means has he used? 

4. (a) What records of school work (not statistics) has the principal kept? 



(b) Are they satisfactory? 

(c) If not, in what respect are they faulty? . 



Forms for Approval 247 

5. (a) Has the applicant intelligently interpreted the course of study? 

(b) If not, in what respects has he failed? 

6. (a) Has applicant shown good judgment in (a) selecting and (b) ordering text- 

books? 



(b) If not, give instances . 



7. (a) Does the appUcant unify and systematize the work of the school? . 
(b) If not, in what respects has he failed? 

8. Describe the applicant's influence on methods of teaching 

9. Describe the applicant's influence on school discipline 



10. (a) Does the applicant exercise proper supervision over heating, lighting, ventila- 

tion, and cleanUness of his school? 

(b) If not, in what respects has he failed? 

11. Are the applicant's manners, conversation, and conduct those becoming a principal? 

12. General remarks: 



District Superintendent, 
DIVISION SUPERINTENDENT'S RECOMMENDATION 

Division Superinlendeni. 



APPENDIX H 

FORMS FOR APPROVAL OF SERVICE: ADVANCE IN SALARY 

(a) Elementary Schools: Report by Principal 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



SPECIAL REPORT ON THE WORK OF 

Grade , P. S 

District , who applies for approval of service under Section 65 of the By-laws. 

PRINCIPAL'S REPORT 

I. As to applicant's Rating Rating 

a) Ability to comprehend instructions. . . g) Use of objective illustration 

b) Use of the English language h) Thoroughness of drill 

c) Skill in blackboard work i) Cooperation with the other teachers . . 

d) Skill in questioning j) Self-control and manners 

e) Power to interest the class as a whole . k) Use of voice 

f ) Thoroughness in developing subject . . 1) Accuracy in keeping records and mak- 



ing reports. 



2. a) Does the applicant continue to improve in scholarship? If so, specify the 

means 

b) Is the applicant still improving as a teacher? In what respects? 



c) Is the applicant successful in the proper advancement of bright pupils? . 
Give details 



d) In the bringing-up of backward pupils? Give details. 

248 



Forms for Approval 249 

e) What means does applicant employ to secure cooperation of parents in the work 
of h . . . pupils? 

f ) What interest does applicant take in plays and games of h . . . . pupils? 

g) What means does applicant employ to control h . . . pupils? 

h) What has applicant done to prevent and suppress truancy? 



i) Is the teacher able to teach a boys' or a mixed class? . 



i) Is the teacher able to teach, in the present schedule, a class of any grade other 
than the present one? 

3. Rate the applicant's influence upon pupils in developing habits of 

a) Honor d) Self-control 

b) Order e) Courtesy 

c) Self-reliance f) Good Posture 

4. Days of absence during current term Times late 

5. Is this teacher now absent? 

191 

Note. — This report must be filed with the District Superintendent at least six weeks 
before the 3d, 6th, gth, isth, or loth annual increase of the applicant is due. The Dis- 
trict Superintendent will please forward this report with his own to the Division Super- 
intendent at least one week before the meeting of the Board of Superintendents at which 
the applicant's services are to be considered. 



250 City School Supervision 

(b) Elementary Schools: Report by District Superintendent 

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, THE CITY OF NEW YORK 



SPECIAL REPORT ON THE WORK 

Grade P. S 

District , who applies for approval of service under Section 65 of the By-laws. 

DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT'S REPORT 

I have made a thorough personal examination of this teacher's work in the following 
subjects: 

and I have examined the work of the pupils in the following subjects: 
1. My ratings of the teacher's work are as follows: 



Subject 



Rating 



Subject 



2. The results of my examination of the pupils are as follows: 
Subject Rating Subject 



3. The following characterize 

(a) AppUcant's method of conducting a lesson . 



Rating 



Rating 



(b) Applicant's attitude toward pupils . 



(c) Pupils' attitude toward applicant . 



GENERAL REMARKS 



District Superintendent, 



191. 



Note. — This report must be filed with the Division Superintendent at least one week 
before the meeting of the Board of Superintendents at which the appKcant's services are 
to be considered. 



Index 



INDEX 



{Note. — Unless otherwise indicated references are for New York.) 



Additional teachers, 45. 
Administrative control, 169; defined, 8; 

failure to distinguish, 78. 
Advisory council, 177. 
Age of principals, 41. 
Aheam law, 122. 
Appendices, 185 ff. 
Assignment, associate superintendents, 

22; district superintendents, 52. 
Associate city superintendents. See 

Superintendents, associate. 

Baltimore, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 1 1 2-1 13 ; 
supervisory organization, 26, 27. 

Board of education, Brooklyn, 15; 
" Central," 16; Long Island City, 15; 
Manhattan, 16; Queens, 15; Rich- 
mond, 15;' cooperation with teach- 
ers' associations, 174. 

Board of estimate and apportionment, 
curtailment of force of special teach- 
ers, 69. 

Board of e.xaminers, 3, 4, 93; accom- 
plishments of, 108; appointment, 93; 
by-laws, 93; city superintendent as 
a member, no; committees of, 95; 
cost of, loi; critical statement, 109; 
criticism of, 73 ; enlargement of, in; 
establishment of, 93; examinations, 
teachers' questions for, 104; ex- 
aminations, teachers' oral, 105; find- 
ings, in; fimctions of, 94; investi- 
gation of, by board of education, 99; 
licenses granted and refused bj'-, 102, 
103; method of, loi; permanency, 
no; powers and duties, 99; prob- 
lems and difiiculties, 109; reading 
and rating of examination papers, 
1 04 ; reorganization of, recommended , 



181; responsibility for teaching ef- 
ficiency, 117; size of, 109; special 
studies and reports by, 118; statistics 
relative to examinations, Ucenses and 
findings, 100; superior merit cases, 
134; written examination questions, 
loi, 227 ff. 

Board of superintendents, American 
cities, 28-29. 

Board of superintendents, New York, 
3, 15; abolition recommended, 168; 
administrative duties, 86; bureau- 
cracy of, 83; committees, 83 ; compli- 
cated organization, 169; constitution, 
powers, methods, duties, 79 ff . ; co- 
operation with district superintend- 
ents, 61; cooperation with teachers' 
associations, 174; criticism of, 73; 
critical discussion of proceedings, 86; 
failure of, 87 ; findings, 91 ; minutes of, 
86, 196 ff., 210 ff.; powers, 18, 20 ff.; 
powers of, to be studied, 168; organ- 
ization of, 169; procedure of, 87; 
questions submitted to, 83; " Review 
and Reply" of, 170; special studies 
and reports made by, 84. 

Boards, local school, 54. 

Boards of school control, American 
cities, 26-27. 

Borough superintendents, 19, 52, 80. 

Boston, board of school control, 26-27; 
examination, certification and ap- 
pointment of teachers in, 112-113; 
promotion of teachers, 138; rating 
of teachers, 138; records of teaching 
efficiency, 140; supervisory organiza- 
tion, 28-29; teachers' councils, 171. 

Bronx, Borough of, 14, 15, 16, 18. 

Brooklyn, associate superintendents in, 
80; board of education, 15; "Brook- 
lyn Idea," 17. 



253 



2^ 



54 



Index 



Brooks, S. D., quoted, 171-174. 

Bioiialo, board of school control, 26, 27; 
examination, certification and ap- 
pointment of teachers in, 114, 115; 
supervisory organizations, 26, 27. 

Bureau of investigation and appraisal, 
79, 168; establishment of, recom- 
mended, 179. 

By-laws, organization of elementary 
schools, 185 ff. 

Centralization, 18; influence of city 
superintendent, 77. 

Chamberlain, A. H., cited, 73. 

Chancellor, W. E., quoted, 179. 

Charter, New York, 14; educational 
provisions, 75; history of, 15; re- 
vised, 16. 

Chicago, board of school control, 26, 
27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 1 1 2-1 1 5 ; 
promotion of teachers, 140; rating 
of teachers, 142; records of teaching 
efficiency, 142; supervisory organ- 
ization, 26, 27. 

Cincinnati, board of school control, 26, 
27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 114, 
115; promotion of teachers, 144; 
rating of teachers, 144; records of 
teaching efficiency, 144; supervisory 
organization, 26, 27. 

City superintendent of schools, 75; au- 
thority of, 77; centralization of au- 
thority in, 77; cooperation with dis- 
trict superintendents, 61; coopera- 
tion with teachers' associations, 174; 
criticism of, 73 ; enlargement of pow- 
ers of, 79; influence of, on develop- 
ment of school systems, 77; member 
of board of examiners, no; powers 
and duties, 18, 75; powers of, to be 
studied, 168; Reports, cited, 15, 17, 
19 ff., 31-32, 39, 54, 69, 88, 89, 90, 97, 
99; see also under MaxweU, W. H. 

Civil Service Commission, municipal, 
16. _ 

Classification, elementary schools, 2)3- 

Clement, J. H., cited, 136. 

Clerical service, need of, in elementary 
schools, 45. 



Cleveland, board of school control, 26, 
27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 112, 113; 
promotion of teachers, 145; rating 
of teachers, 145; records of teaching 
efficiency, 145 ; supervisory organiza- 
tion, 26, 27. 

Coaching for teachers' examinations, 
104. 

Conference, 4; directors and assist- 
ant directors, 68; board of examin- 
ers, 134; district superintendents, 55. 

Consolidation of elementary schools, 
31; poHcy of, 77. 

Control, administrative, 8, 78, 169; in- 
spectorial, 12; legislative, 7; nature 
of school, 7 ; principles of city school, 

ID. 

Cooking. See Special branches. 

Cooperation, necessity of, in educa- 
tion, 78; to be legalized, 176; by city 
superintendent, 174. 

Council, advisory. See under Ad- 
visory council. 

Council, supervisory. See Supervisory 
council. 

Criticism, attitude of supervisory of- 
ficials toward, 74; discouragement 
of, 74; incompetent, 74. 

Davis law, 122. 

Democratic education, motive of, 2. 

Detroit, board of school control, 26, 27; 
examination, certification of teachers 
in, 112, 113; promotion of teachers, 
146; rating of teachers, 147; records 
of teaching efficiency, 147; super- 
visory organization, 26, 27. 

Director of special branches. See 
Special branches. 

District superintendent. See imder 
Superintendent, district. 

Division superintendent. See under 
Superintendent, division. 

Documentary material, 4. 

Doelle, J. H., cited, 137. 

Draper, A. S., quoted, 7. 

Drawing. See Special branches. 

Edson, A. W., assistant associate super- 
intendent, 90. 



Index 



255 



Education, as a cooperative under- 
taking, 78; social ideal of, 3. 
Education, board of. See Board of 

education. 
Education, history and principles of, 
teachers' examination questions, 227, 
229, 233, 237. 
Efficiency, elementary school princi- 
pals, 47. 

Efficiency of teaching, board of exam- 
iners and, 117; factors of, 136, 137; 
forms for, 125, 126, 127, 128; forms 
for rating in New York, 132, 133, 
242 ff.; methods and standards for, 
116; records for, 136 ff.; rating of, in 
Boston, 138; Chicago, 140; Cincin- 
nati, 144; Cleveland, 145; Detroit, 
147; Milwaukee, 149 ff.; New Or- 
leans, 154; Newton, 138; New York, 
116 ff.; Philadelphia, 159; Salt Lake 
City, 165; Springfield, Mass., 166; 
St. Louis, 162; rating of, in American 
cities, 136 ff.; summary of findings, 
134, 13s; superior merit, 131. 

Elementary schools, by-laws governing 
organization, 185 ff.; classification 
of, ^y, consolidation, 31; forms for 
approval of teaching service, 242, 
248-250; organization of, 32; salary 
schedule of supervisory staff, 190 ff.; 
supervision of, s;^. 

Eligible Ust, 19. 

EngUsh, inadequate command of, by 
teachers, 107. 

English, teachers' examination ques- 
tions, 231, 235, 240. 

Estimate and apportionment, board 
of. See imder Board of estimate. 

Examination questions, teachers', 
2275. 

Examinations for teachers' license, 
104. 

Examinations, teachers', coaching for, 
104. See Board of examiners. 

Examiners, board of. See under Board 
of examiners. 

Exhibit, boards of school control in 
American cities, 26, 27; supervisor}' 
organization in American cities, 28, 

29- . 

Exhibit, examination, certification and 



appointment of teachers in American 
cities, 112. 
Experience of principals, 38. 

Findings, associate superintendents, 
91, 92; board of examiners, iii; 
board of superintendents, 91, 92; 
city superintendent, 91, 92; district 
superintendents, 62; elementary 
school supervisors, 51; special 
branches, 72; teaching efficiency, 
134- 

Forms, teaching efficiency. See under 
Records. 

Freedom, responsible, 179. 

French, ^ee Special branches. 

German. See Special branches. 
Grady law, 122. 

Hayward, F. H., cited, 167. 

Hervey, Walter L., communication of, 

95 ; cited, 120. 
High School Principals' Association 

and superior merit, 134. 
High School Teachers' Association and 

superior merit, 132. 
High schools, forms for approval of 

teaching service, 243. 

Inbreeding, supervisory staff, 40. 
Inspectorial control, 12. 
Investigation and appraisal, bureau of. 
See under Bureau of investigation. 

Johnson, C. H., "High School Educa- 
tion," cited, 7. 

Kindergarten, approval of service of 
teachers, forms for, 245; supervision 
of, 64, 71-72. See also imder Special 
branches. 

Leadership, 24. 

Legislative school control, 169; defined, 

7- 
Licenses, teachers', examination ques- 
tions, 227 ff.; forms for renewal. 



256 



Index 



242 S.; permanent, 117 ff.; renewal 
of, 117 ff . See also under Board of 
examiners. 
Long Island City, board of education, 

IS- 

Los Angeles, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification 
and appointment of teachers in, 
114, 115; supervisory organization, 
26, 27. 

Lowry, C. D., cited, 140. 

Manhattan, Borough of, 14, 15, 16. 

Manual training. See under Special 
branches. 

Mass education, 2. 

Maxwell, W. H., quoted, 17, 85; influ- 
ence of, on development of school 
system, 77. 

McMurry, F. M., 3, 30, 34. 

Merit, superior, in teachers, 131. 

Method of treatment, 4. 

Mihtary standards, 78. 

Milwaukee, board of school control, 26, 
27; examination, certification and 
r appointment of teachers in, 114, 115; 
promotion of teachers, 149; rating of 
teachers, 150 ff.; records of teaching 
efficiency, 150 ff.; supervisory organi- 
zation, 26, 27. 

MinneapoUs, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 114, 115; 
supervisory organization, 26, 27. 

Minutes, board of superintendents, 
196 ff., 210 ff. 

Moore, E. C, quoted, 11. 

Music. See Special branches. 

Newark, board of school control, 26, 27; 
examination, certification and ap- 
pointment of teachers in, 114, 115; 
supervisory organization, 26, 27. 

New Orleans, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 114, 115; 
promotion of teachers, 154; rating of 
teachers, 154 ff.; records of teaching 
efficiency, i54ff.; supervisory organi- 
zation, 26, 27. 



Newton, Mass., promotion of teachers, 
138; rating of teachers, 138. 

New York. See several subject head- 
ings. 

New York, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification 
and appointment of teachers, 114, 
115; forms for rating teachers' ef- 
ficiency, 132, 133; supervisory or- 
ganization, 28-29. 

New York Teachers' Association, 136; 
High School Principals' Association, 
136. 

O'ConneU, J. A., communication of, 

lOI. 

Organization, New York elementary 
schools, 32. 

Palmer, A. E., quoted, 17, 31. 

Penmanship. See under Special 
branches. 

Philadelphia, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 112, 113; 
promotion of teachers, 159; rating of 
teachers, 160; records of teaching 
efficiency, 160; supervisory organiza- 
tion, 26, 27. 

Physical training. See Special 
branches. 

Pittsburg, board of school control, 26, 
27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 11 2-1 13; 
supervisory organization, 26, 27. 

Population, New York City, 14. 

Powers and duties. See imder various 
titles of officers. 

Principal, New York school control, 
19 ff. 

Principals, elementary school, 3; age, 
41 ; approval of service of, forms for, 
246, 247; as supervisor, 30; classes 
of, 47; clerical duties, 44; education, 
38; efficiency of, 47; examination of, 
107; experience, 38; license for, 107; 
powers and duties, 42 ff.; promotion, 
40; quality of service of, 40; salaries, 
3; rating by district superintend- 
ents, 49; reports of, 45; selection, 37. 

Promotion of teachers and promotional 



Index 



257 



examinations. See under Teachers, 
promotion of. 
Psychology of education, administra- 
tion and criticism, cited, 167. 

Queens, Borough of, 14, 15, 16. 
Questions, teachers' examinations, 

227 ff. 

Rating, elementary school principals, 
47; criticisms of, 48-51. 

Rating of teachers. See under Ef- 
ficiency; also under Teachers, pro- 
motion of; also under Records. 

Recommendations, abolition of board 
of superintendents, 168; creation of 
supervisory council, 171; establish- 
ment of bureau of investigation and 
appraisal, 179; for reorganization, 
168 ff.; reorganization of board of ex- 
aminers, 181. 

Records, teaching efficiency, Boston, 
138; Chicago, 140; Cincinnati, 144; 
Cleveland, 145; Detroit, 147; Mil- 
waukee, 149 flf. ; New Orleans, 154 ff.; 
Newton, Mass., 138; Philadelphia, 
159-160; St. Louis, 161 ff.; Salt Lake 
City, 165; Springfield, Mass., 166. 

Renewal of Ucenses, forms, 242 ff. 

Reports, principals', 45 ; district super- 
intendents', 195. 

Richmond, Borough of, 14, 15, 16. 

St. Louis, board of school control, 26- 
27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 112, 113; 
promotion of teachers, 161; rating 
of teachers, 162; records of teaching 
efficiency, 161 ff.; supervisory organi- 
zation, 28, 29. 

Salaries, approval of service for, forms, 
2483.; city superintendents', 36; 
conditions for increase, 123; princi- 
pals', elementary school, 36; sched- 
ules for supervisory staff of ele- 
mentary schools, 34, 51, 190 ff. 

Salt Lake City, promotion of teachers, 
165; rating of teachers, 166; records 
of teaching efficiency, 166. 

San Francisco, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification of 



teachers in, 114, 115; supervisory 
organization, 26, 27. 

School boards, local, 54. 

School consolidation, 31. 

School control as a state function, 8; 
divorced from political activities, 10; 
nature of, 7. 

School districts, 54. 

School inquiry, committee, i. 

School system, organization of, 25. 

School, imit for supen^ision, 30. 

Service, teaching, approval and dis- 
approval, 119; defects of, 121; fit 
and meritorious, 122; forms for ap>- 
proval, 242 ff.; reports of, 120 ff.; 
standards for, 121. 

Sewing. See under Special branches. 

Shop work. See under Special branches. 

Smith, G. J., commvmication of, 99. 

Spaulding, F. E., quoted, 138, 139. 

Special branches, approval of service of 
teachers, forms for, 244; assignment 
and appointment of directors, 64; 
directors, assistant directors and 
teachers, 3, 4, 65-67, 68; curtailment 
of force of teachers, 69; fimdings and 
recommendations, 72; justification 
of special teachers for, 69; nmnber 
of teachers of, 68; place of, in pro- 
gram, 68; relation of director to dis- 
trict superintendent, 65; reports by 
directors, 65; salary, bonus for, 71; 
social and educational policy, 67; 
supervisory duties of directors, 65; 
supervisory methods, 68; teachers 
of, 65. 

Springfield, promotion of teachers, 166; 
rating of teachers, 164; records of 
teaching efficiency, 167. 

State, relation of, to school control, 8. 

Statistics, 129; need of central office, 
45; required of principals, 45; super- 
vision, elementary schools, 34, 35. 

Straubenmiiller, Gustav, associate city 
superintendent, 90. 

Summary of findings, associate super- 
intendents, 91-92; board of exam- 
iners, in; board of superintendents, 
91, 92; city superintendent, 91, 92; 
district superintendents, 62; elemen- 
tary school supervision, 51; special 



258 



Index 



branches, 72; teaching efficiency, 134, 

135- 

Superintendent, city, in American 
cities, 28, 29. 

Superintendent, city, New York. See 
under City superintendent of schools. 

Superintendents, associate city, 52, 80, 
86, 88; assignment, 22, 89; powers 
and duties of, 81; reports of, 90; 
siunmary of findings, 91-92. 

Superintendents, board of. See imder 
Board of superintendents. 

Superintendents, borough, 19, 52. 

Superintendents, district, 52; assign- 
ment, 52; character of supervision 
by, 55 ; conferences of, 55; coopera- 
tion with, 61; discrimination of ad- 
ministrative and supervisory duties, 
61, 62; findings concerning, 62; free- 
dom, initiative and responsibility of, 
63; inertness of, 62; initiative of, 61; 
method of work of, 61; monthly re- 
port of, 195; non-supervisory duties, 
62; of New York, 3, 4, 22; powers and 
duties, 53; qualifications of, 58; ques- 
tions submitted to, 59; reports and 
studies by, 60; rating of principals, 
48-51; relation to board of superin- 
tendents, 59; relation to directors of 
special branches, 65; selection of, 
57; summary of finchngs, 62; super- 
visory duties of, 59; teachers' meet- 
ings held by, 61. 

Superintendents, division, 22, 56. 

Superior merit, 131; forms for rating, 

132, 133- 

Supervision, aim of, i; constructive, 
24; cooperative, 78; decentraUzed, 
78; elementary schools, ZZ\ expert, 
78; ideal of, 3. 

Supervisor, principal as, 30. 

Supervisors, appointment, 51; number 
of, 51; salary schedules, 51. 

Supervisory control, 169; failure to dis- 
tinguish, 78. 



Supervisory coimcil, 62, 79, 168; recom- 
mendation for creation, 171. 

Supervisory districts, data, 54; table 
of, 56; size of, 54. 

Supervisory divisions, 56. 

Supervisory organization, American 
cities, 2S-29. 

Supervisory staff, salaries, 190 ff. 

Taylor, J. S., cited, 116. 

Teachers, appointment, 17; associa- 
tions, 174; cooperation of, 171; ex- 
amination, certification and appoint- 
ment in American cities, 112; inade- 
quate command of English, 107; 
participation of, in determining edu- 
cational policies, 171. 

Teachers, promotion of, Boston, 138; 
Chicago, 140; Cincinnati, 144; Cleve- 
land, 145; Detroit, 147; Milwaukee, 
149 ff.; New Orleans, 154 ff.; New- 
ton, Mass., 138; Philadelphia, 159- 
160; St. Louis, 161 ff.; Salt Lake 
City, 165; Springfield, Mass., 166. 

Teachers, rating of. See under Effi- 
ciency; also under Teachers, promo- 
tion of; also under Records. 

Teachers, special. See under Special 
branches. 

Teaching efficiency. See under Ef- 
ficiency, 

Teaching, methods of, examination 
questions, 228, 230, 234, 238. 

Teaching service, reports of, 120; de- 
fects of, 121; standards for, 121. 

Training school, forms for approval of 
teachmg service, 243. 

Unit, supervision, 30. 

Washington, board of school control, 
26, 27; examination, certification and 
appointment of teachers in, 114, 115; 
supervisory organization, 26, 27. 






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